LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

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njt*— — - (Supijrijl^l !f a* 

Shelf .l3A.15 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



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1 r 



THE NORMAL: 



OR 



METHODS OF TEACHING 

THE COMMON BRANCHES, 

ORTHOEPY, ORTHOGRAPHY, GRAMMAR, GEOGRAPHY 
ARITHMETIC AND ELOCUTION; 



THEOUn.n«S, TECIINIGALmES. EXPLAIN ATIONS, DEMONSTRATIONS. 

DEFINITIONS AND METHODS, 

INTRODUCTOny AND PECULIAR TO EACH BRANCH. 






By ALFRED HOLBROOK, 

PRINCIPAL OF NORMAL SCHOOL, LHBANON, 




A. S. BARNES & COMPANY, 
NEW YORK AND CHICAGO. 



LBl5fS 



Entered, according to Act of Cougrcss, in tlie year 18ED, 
BY A. S. BARNES AND BURR, 

lu the Clei'k's Office of the District Court of the Rnnthem 
DiFtrict of New Yoric 

Copyright Renewed, 1887. 



; 



V 



PREFACE. 



Multitudes of growing teachers spend money 
by tens or hundreds every year, in visiting schools, 
in order, that by witnessing the operations of 
teachers of acknowledged ability, they may im- 
prove or remodel their own systems. This volume 
is designed to take a working school on a visit to 
teachers. It presents to its readers in succession, 
classes in the several grades of the common 
branches in actual operation, and the teachers pur- 
suing such methods as have proved abundantly 
successful with large numbers who have tried 
them. 

The Normal has been undertaken as a matter of 
necessity for training classes of Teachers. All 
books hitherto written for teachers, being designed 

Ciii) 



i_ 



IT 



PREFACE. 



only as reference books, are too general to be used 
as text books. If Teaching is a science, it can 
be taught as a science ; and text books can be used 
with as much advantage as in other sciences. Aa 
the work has progressed, the different Parts have 
been brought to the test in Classes of Teachers, 
and have been found greatly to facilitate the pecu- 
liar duties and labors of the Normal School. 

The different Parts, as they have appeared from 
time to time, have been used by many hundreds of 
teachers as Guide-books in their school -room du- 
ties, being consulted, more or less, daily, for hints 
and aids in the management of the several classes. 
From many such teachers, in the different grades 
of schools, both public and private, the author has 
received encouraging assurances of the utility, the 
necessity of the work. In numerous instances 
teachers, aided by its directions and suggestions, 
have remodeled their entire operations, and from 
very indifferent materials, as they had supposed, 
have been able to reconstruct and build up an effi- 
cient and successful system. 

The Parts on Geography, Grammar, and Arith- 
metic, are used by pupils as well as teachers, for 



PREFACE. V 

reference books in the preparation of their lessons; 
the classifications and demonstrations afi'ording aid 
in the thorough investigation of each of these 
branches. 

The Second and Sixth Parts are designed to be 
used as text books in Reading and Speaking ; 
though prepared for Teachers' Classes in the Nor- 
mal School, they will be found none the less suita- 
ble for classes in Reading and Speaking in any 
Bchool. 

Though the special methods of only the branch- 
es mentioned on the title page are given in this 
volume, the General Method described in connec- 
tion with teaching adv^anced classes in Grammar 
in Part III, is equally applicable to the Higher 
Branches. 

Fellow Teachers, should acy one of you make a 
panorama of the school under your special charge, 
or the system of schools under your general super- 
vision, painted on successive pages in word pic- 
tures, as I have endeavored to do, please let me 
know ; I shall wish to obtain a sight of it. 

I have already been amply compensated for the 
labor and expense bestowed in the preparation and 



! ! 
I I 



n PREFACE. 

publication of the Normal; and should the bound 

volume meet with the same cordial reception from 

my brethren, which has greeted the several Parts 

as they have successively appeared, I shall surely 

have abundant reason to feel that " my labor ha? 

not been in vain," A. h. 

South-Western NoRMij School, 
Jjfho'non^ O.. Jon. 1^9. 



r 



PART I. 

CLASSIFIED KNOWLRDGE: 
OR, SCIENCE. 



t 




( I 

! 1 



INTRODUCTION, 

Knowledge is that wliicli is already known bj the 
individual, or which he may certainly know by 
study. In a more general sense, it is that which 
is already known by any one of the human species ; 
and hence may be known by many others. 

All else is mystery. The limits of knowledge 
are constantly enlarging, but mystery, instead of 
diminishing, becomes still more enlarged. Myste- 
rious, unanswerable problems rise on every side. 
For every new fact that is acquired by accident or 
investigation, many new mysteries present them- 
selves to the inquirer. This will be found to be 
true in every direction. The man of few thoughts 
has few difficulties or doubts; the idiot, none. But 
as the boundaries of thought increase by its own 
activity, innumerable queries spring up on every 
side, some of which are generalized with previous 
queries and their answers, and are thus solved or 
explained; others, however, are retained for gen- 
eralization and solution till a sufficient number 
of other truths of similar kind are clustered or 
classified together to form a law or general princi- 
ple. He who is most successful in classifying iso- 
lated facts, in perceiving identities, similarities, and 

relations in truths, will most speedily arrive at a 

(9) 



10 OENERAI OUTLINK. 

satisfactory knowledge of things. Again, he who 
has the most truth already classified ha« every 
advantage over him whose knowledge, such as it, 
lies in chaos; in bare, isolated, unconnected facts, 
or semblan-ces of facts, retained in the memory on 
the principle of locality or association. Again, it ie 
not always borne in mind that truth generalized or 
systematized is just as mysterious after all. The 
reference of a new fact to a general principle is 
commonly taken for a satisfactory solution of the 
why and wherefore connected with it; while to the 
thinker the mystery remains just as much unsolved 
as before; nay, much enhanced by the consideration. 

Take, for example, the great Newtonian theory of 
the law of gravitation. "Why," said Newton, as 
thousands had said before, "does this apple fall to 
the ground?" The thousands had generalized the 
fact by saying, "All bodies fall to the earth." 
Newton asked again, " Why do all bodies fall to 
the earth?" The matter remained just as much a 
mystery after that generalization as before. In 
solving the mystery he discovered and demonstrat- 
ed the wider generalization, "All matter attracts 
all other, directly as the weight of the masses and 
inversely as the square of the distance." 

Thinkers are now left in more profound mystery 
than before Newton. For, why does matter exert 
this power in this manner? Non-thinker replies, 
"God has imparted this property to matter;" just 
as Non-thinker before the days of Newton, said, 
" God has established this law, ' All things fall 
towards the earth. 



> )> 



L^7-z 



INTRODUCTION. 11 

"Who will then explain the law of gravii-ition? 
that is, generalize it with other facts known or 
unknown, and, perhaps, subvert this law, as New- 
ton dissipated the notion that bodies fall because 
the direction is downward. 

It has been well remarked, that there is but one 
idea in the mind of God, i. e., all facts are general- 
ized or comprehended under one law, universal and 
eternal. Is that law simply his will? or is it the 
inevitable relation of things over which a God of 
truth exerts no control, but with which all his acts 
harmonize, and with which he would have the acts 
of all his creatures coincide? Who will answer? 

That which is unknown, we call mystery. But 
that which is known and not generalized may take 
different names according to circumstances. It may 
be called wformation^ intelligence^ or crude undigested^ 
knowledge^ which is but a slight remove from igno- 
rance. A man possessing much knowledge in this 
unsystematized state, may be said, possibly, to be 
intelligent^ but surely no one would call him scieri- 
tijic. Whereas, another, whose general knowledge 
was incomparably less, who had mastered the prin- 
ciples of one subject, as of chemistry or botany, 
might justly be called a inan of science. 

In systematizing knowledge as it now exists, in 
other words, converting it into Science., it will be 
found that there are no very well defined lines of 
division. Ideas may be grouped, facts gathered in 
clusters and crystallized into sub-systems, but we 
shall discover before any group is complete and 
well arranged in itself, that we have numerous 



12 GENERAL OUTLINE. 

truths that are required just as necessarily to com- 
plete the arrangement in another group. We may 
find, indeed, that some sciences, as generally re- 
ceived, may be entirely absorbed by others, either 
in a mass or by being divided, according to the 
respective claims of the several others. 

In a General Classification of Knowledge, then, 
like the one presented, there will arise numerous 
difficulties, from the first division, down through 
the location of the various branches, according to 
their natural relations. No two persons, even 
though equally well disciplined, would probably 
a2;rec in the details of an arranoement of this kind. 
With regard to the first division of Knowledge^ 
viz : Literature, the Sciences, and the Arts ; it is 
that generally recognized. The nature of things 
demands this division, and general assent corrobo- 
ratesi it. The division of the Ancients was Physics, 
Metaphysics, and the Arts. The division of the 
Moderns is. Mind, Matter, and its inseparable con- 
comitants, power and quantity ; lastly, the Arts. 
The difiiculty, then, is not in the grand division as 
aforesaid, but in locating the several departments ; 
much more in locating the various branches. One 
might claim, for instance, that Ethics belongs more 
properly in Phrenics, another would place it in 
Epistatics, as connected inseparably with human 
' governments. We have placed it in Theotics, as 
being more closely associated with relations to the 
Deity : the moral nature being the image of Grod 
implanted in the soul. 



CLASSIFIED KNOWLEEGE: 
OR, SCIENCE. 



JjITERATURE. 

The Sciences. 
The Arts. 



DEPARTMENTS AND BRANCHES OF LITERATURE 



r Psychology, 
I Phrenology, 
I Grammar, 
Fhbehicb, ^ Elocution, 
I Rhetoric, 
I Logic, 
(^ Didactic9. 



Theology, 



TBBOT1C8, < 



. Religion, 



f History, 
Chronology, 
CUBONICS, ■{ Biography, 



Travels, 
Poems, 



EpIS TATICS, ' 



r Theism, 
Deism, 
Pantheism, 
Polytheism, 
Atheism. 

["Christianity, 
I Judaism, 

Mohammedanism^ 

Paganism. 

Infidelity, 
[ Ethics, 

m \ Sacred, 

T'-"^' I Profane. 

Fictitious. 

r True, 

[ False — Novels, 



I 



. Archaeology, [^ 
'Law, 



^ Government, 



Epic. 

' Natural, 

Civil, 

Internationa], 
Ecclesiastical. 
' Patriarchal, 

Monarchical, 
Democratic, 



Common, 
Statute. 



j Absolute, 

} Limited. 

J Pure, 

/ Representative. 

(13) 



CLASSIFIED 


KNOWLEDGE: \ Liter atcre 




-l Ihe feCIENCT:S. 


OR, SCIENCE. 


(^The Arts. 


DEPARTMENTS AND BRANCHES OF THE SCIENCES. 


f Geography, 




Geology, 




Gtsotim J Mineralogy, 
GEOTicq, < Chemistry, 




Botany, 




t Zoology. 






' Arithmetic, 




Geometry, 




' Abstract, 


Analysis, 
Algebra, 
An. Geometry, 


Mathkmatius, • 




^ Calculus. 
^Book-Keeping, 
Mensuration, 




^ Applied, 


Surveying, 




Navigation, 


1 


. Astronomy. 


f Anatomy, 
Physiology, 






THrcRAPBUTiOS, ^ Pathology, 


' Physopathy, 


Hygiene, 
(^ Medicine, 


Allopathy, 


Homoeopathy, 




Hydropathy, 




^ Electropathy. 




' Mechanics, 






Hydrostatics, 

Hydraalics, 

Pneumatics, 




Physios, < 


Acoustics, 
Pyronomics, 
Optics, 
Electrics, 






^ Physical Astronom 


y. 


(14) 





CLASSIFIED KNOWLEDGE: 
OR, SCIENCE. 



C Literature. 
} The Sciences. 
(^The Arts. 



DEPARTMENTS AND BRANCHES OP THE ARTS. 



Technics, 



GnArnicfl, 



Polemics, 



COQMICS, 



Agriculture, 

Horticulture, 

P.)molngy, 

Manufactilres, 

Printing. 



{Drafting, 
Architecture, 
Navitecture, 
Civil Engineering 

f Strategy, 
I Trtctics, 
1 Military En- 
( [giueering. 



( Linear 
I Mathematical, 
■{ Perspective, 

j Isometrica!, 

[ Shades and ShadowB. 



f Painting, 
I Sculpture, 

1 Music, 
Poetry, 
Daaoing. 



{Infantry, 
Cavalry, 
Artillery, 
Naval. 



{Pencilling, 
Photography, 
Engraving. 



(15) 



DEFINITIONS. 

PRELIJlIINARY TERMS. 

1 

Knowledge. That which is known. 
Mystery. That "which is not known. 

2. 

Science. Knowledge systematized and explained. 
Empiricisvi. Knowledge not systematized or 
explained. 

Dogmatism. Opinions asserted as knowledge. 

3. 

Conjecture. A supposition assumed without sat- 
isfactory data. 

Hypothesis. A supposition assumed to account 
for a fact. 

Theory. A supposition sustained by several 
facts, which it generalizes and explains. 

4. 

Theory, The systematic arrangement of laws 
and principles. 

Practice. The application of such laws and 
principles to useful purposes. 

5. 

Discovery. The act of finding out that which 
previously existed. 

Invention. The act of contriving and producing 
that which did not previously exist. 

(16) 



DEFINITIONS. 17 

6. 

GRAND DIVISIONS OP KNOWLEDGE. 

Literature. That grand diTision of knowledge 
^vliich comprises all those branches treating of the 
mind, its nature and communications; also, the 
responsibilities, history and government of man. 

The Sciences. That grand division of knowl- 
edge which comprises all those branches which 
treat of matter and quantity. 

The Arts. That grand division of knowledge 
which comprises all those branches which treat of 
the improvement or embellishment of matter. 

7. 

DEPARTMENTS OF LITERATURE. 

Phrenics. That department of knowledge which 
comprises all those branches which treat of the na- 
ture of mind, and the communication of thought. 

Theotics. That department of knowledge which 
comprises all those branches which treat of God, 
and the obligations of men to the Deity and to 
each other. 

Chronics. That department of knowledge which 
comprises all those branches which involve the 
lapse of time as a necessary element. 

EnsTATics. That department of knowledge 
which comprises all those branches which treat of 
human laws and government. 

8. 

DEPARTMENTS OF THE SCIENCES. 

GEOTicy. That department of the sciences 
which comprises all those branches which treat of 



^ 



fr 



18 GENERAL OUTLINE. 

the material world, its surface, structure, materials 
and inhabitants. 

Therapeutics. That department of the sciences 
which comprises all those branches necessary to the 
preservation and restoration of health. 

Physics. That department of the sciences which 
comprises all those branches which treat of matter 
in the mass ; also, of force and motion. 

Mathematics. That department of the sciences 
which comprises all those branches which treat of 
quantity, and its applications to substance, time 
and space. 

9. 
departments of the arts. 

Technics. That department of the arts which 
comprises all those branches which contribute to 
the necessities and comfort of man and beast. 

Graphics. That department of the arts which 
comprises all those useful branches in which math- 
ematical drafting is a necessary element. 

Polemics. That department of the arts which 
comprises all those branches which treat of war 
and fortification. 

CosMics. That department of the arts which 
comprises all those branches which contribute to 
the pleasures of the taste and imaojination ; usually 
called the Fine Arts. 

10. 

branches of phrenics. 
Psychology. That branch of knowledge which 
treats of the mind, its nature, powers and relations. 



DEFINITIONS 



19 



Phrenology. That branch which treats of the 
mind, as manifested by the form of the skull. 

Grammar. That branch which treats of lan- 
guage, and its correct use, in the communication 
of thought. 

Elocution. That branch which treats of vocal 
delivery, in reading and speaking. 

Rhetoric. That branch which treats of clear- 
ness, force, and elegance, in the use of language ; 
also, of the invention, development, and arrange- 
ment of ideas. 

Logic. That branch which treats of thinking 
and reasoning correctly. 

Didactics. That branch which treats of the 
means and methods of imparting instruction ; also, 
of school arrangements and school discipline. 

11. 

DIVISIONS OF THEOTICS. 

Theology. That division of knowledge which 
treats of the existence, nature, and attributes of 

God. 

Religion. That division of knowledge which 
treats of the obligations of men to God, and to each 

other. 

12. 

BRANCHES OF THEOLOGY. 

Theism. That branch which treats of God, as 
havino" o-iven a revelation of his will to man. 

Deism. That branch which treats of God as 
existing, but denies a revelation. 

Pantheism. That branch which treats of God 
as being all things, and of all things as being God. 



! ' 



20 GENERAL OUTLINE. 

Polytheism. That branch which treats of ir any 
gods, with distinct and conflicting natures. 

Atheism. That branch which treats of natural 
law as controlling all things, and denies the exis- 
tence of a Supreme Intelligence. • 

13. 

BRANCHES OF RELIGION. 

Christianity. That branch which treats of the 
religion of Jesus Christ, which recognizes the Old 
and New Testaments as a divine revelation. 

Judaism. That branch which treats of the reli- 
gion of the Jew^s, which recognizes only the Old 
Testament as a divine revekition. 

Mohammedanism. That branch which treats ol 
the religion established by Mahomet, and which 
recognizes the Koran as a divine revelation. 

Paganism. That branch which treats of the 
various beliefs of the heathen, or polytheists. 

Infidelity. That branch which treats of the 
doctrine of sceptics; or those who do not believe in 
ft divine revelation. 

Ethics. That branch which treats of morality, 
or the obligations of men to each other ; usually 
cnlled Moral Philosophy. 

14. 

BRANCHES OF CHRONICS. 

History. That branch which treats of the rise 
and progress of nations and communities ; giving 
a narration of events pertaining to each, in order 
of their occurrence, with their causes and conse- 
quences. 



DEFINITIONS. 



21 



Sacred Ulstury. That given by the writers of 
the Old and New Testaments. 

Profane History. That derived fron any otler 
source than the Bible. 

Chronology. That branch which treats of the 
various divisions and periods of time, and the 
methods of reckoning the dates of past events. 

Biography. That branch which treats of the 
lives and characters of individuals. 

Archaeology. That branch which treats of the 
Ancients, their knowledge, manners, customs, etc. 

Travels. That branch which treats of adven- 
tures in journeys; also, of the manners, customs, 
curiosities, and productions of foreign countries 
or states. 

15. 

BRANCHES OP EPISTATICS. 

Law — A rule of action. 

Natural Law. That branch which treats of 
law as existing in the social relations, prior to any 
positive precept or enactment. 

Civil Law. That branch which treats of law 
established in society, by general usage or positive 
enactment. 

Statute Law. That form of civil law estab- 
lished by legislative power; also, recorded and 
published as law. 

Common Law. That form of civil law estab- 
lished by general usage, and recognized by the 
decisions of couits. 

International Law. That branch which treats 
of the repculation of the intercourse of nations. 



i2 GENERAL OUTLINE. 

Ecclesiastical Law. That branch which 
treats of the laws established for the government 
of* a church. 

Goveniment. — A method of administering law. 

Patriarchal Government. That in which the 
law is administered by the head of the family or 
tribe, called a Patriarch, Chief, Sheik, etc. 

Absolute Monarchy. That form of govern- 
ment in which the will of the sovereign is unre- 
strained by legislative enactment. 

Limited Monarchy. That form of government 
in which the power of the sovereign is restrained 
by a constitution and laws. 

Democracy. That form of government in which 
the people choose their own rulers, and make their 
own laws. 

Republic. That form of government in which 
the people choose their own rulers; also, repre- 
sentatives to make their laws. It is also called a 
Representative Democracy. 

16. 

BRANCHES OP GEOTICS. 

Geography. That branch which treats of the 
Earth's surface ; also, of the phenomena of -"land, 
water, and atmosphere. 

Geology. That branch which treats of the 
structure of the earth and the causes of the exist- 
ing arrangement of the mineral masses in the 
earth's crust. , 

Mineralogy. That branch which treats of the 
Inorganic materials of the earth; their composition, 



DEFINITIONS. 23 

properties, relations and classification; also, of the 
means of determining them. 

Chemistry. That branch which treats of the 
elements of matter; their nature and properties; 
their laws of combination and decomposition ; also, 
of the means of combining and separating them. 

Botany. That branch which treats of plants ; 
their habits, habitations, uses, and classification ; 
also, of the means of determining them. 

Zoology. That branch which treats of animals , 
their structure, habits, habitations and classifica- 
tion ; also, of the succession and distribution of 
the various classes, orders, genera, and species of 
the earth. 

17. 

BRANCHES OP THERAPEUTICS. 

Anatomy. That branch which treats of the dif- 
ferent parts of orf^anized bodies; their composi- 
tion, construction, and arrangement. 

Physiology. That branch which treats of the 
functions and properties of the difi*erent parts of 
organized bodies ; also, of vital phenomena, their 
causes, methods, and aims. 

Pathology. That branch which treats of dis- 
eases, their nature, symptoms and causes. 

Hygiene. That branch which treats of the pre- 
Bcrvation of health. 

Medicine. That branch which treats of the 
cure or alleviation of disease. 

Physopathy. The cure of disease by attending 

to the demands of the system, as indicated to the 

patient himself by his feelings and desires. 
2 



24 GENERAL OUTLINE. 

Allopathy. The cure of disease by inJucing 
a condition of the system opposite to, or incompat- 
ible with that essential to the disease. 

HoMcEOPATHY. The cure of disease by inducing 
in the patient affections similar to the disease. It 
is accomplished chiefly by minute doses of medi- 
nine. 

Hydropathy. The cure of disease by the inter- 
nal or external application of water. 

Electropathy. The cure of disease by the 
application of electrical currents to the system, or 
part affected. 

Motorpathy. The cure of disease by rubbing 
c»r kneading the parts affected. 

18. 

DIVISIONS OF MATHEMATICS. 

Pure, or Abstract Mathematics. That divis- 
ion of the subject which considers quantity, apart 
from any particular substance, time, or space. 

Mixed, or Applied Mathematics. That divis- 
ion of the subject which considers magnitude or 
number, as applied to some definite substance, 
time, or space. 

19 

BRANCHES OF PURE MATHEMATICS. 

Arithmetic. That branch which treats of Num- 
bers ; their properties, laws, proportions; also, of 
the processes involved in their applications. 

Geometry. That branch which treats of space, 
in all its varied forms, portions, and relations; 
also, of the processes involved in determining 
magnitudes in known units. 



DEIINITIONS. 25 

Analysis. That branch which treats of Quan- 
tity, and makes use of letters of the alphabet to 
express numbers, and of signs to express opera- 
tions. 

Algebra. The application of Analysis to Arith- 
metic. 

Analytical Geometry. The application of 
Analysis to Geometry. 

Calculus — Differential and Integral. That 
branch of Mathematics, in which infinitesimal 
differences are used as a means of investigation 
and calculation. 

20. 
branches of mixed mathematics. 

Book-Keeping, or Commercial Arithmetic. 
That branch which treats of the application of 
Arithmetic, to all transactions of trade; and of such 
a record of transactions, as enables a person to as- 
certain the true state of his business, at any time. 

Mensuration. That branch which treats of the 
means of ascertaining the exact quantity of sur- 
face or solidity, contained on or in the different 
forms and portions of matter. 

Surveying. That division of Mensuration which 
treats of determining the limits, and area of land; 
also, of dividing lands proportionally. 

Navigation. That branch which treats of the 
means of directing and measuring the course of 
ships, by the application of geometrical principles, 
or by astronomical observations. 

Astronomy. That branch which treats of the 



26 GENERAL OUTLINE. 

celestial bodies; their magnitudes, motions, dis- 
tances, periods of revolution, and eclipses. 

21. 

BRANCHES OF PHYSICS. 

Mechanics. That branch which treats of force 
and motion ; their properties, laws and applications, 
either directly or through machinery. 

Hydrostatics. That division of Mechanics 
which treats of the equilibrium and pressure of 
fluids at rest, and of their properties and laws. 

Hydraulics. That division of Mechanics which 
treats of the motions, and forces of elastic fluids, 
as air and steam. 

Acoustics. That branch which treats of sound; 
its cause, nature, laws, and phenomena. 

Pyronomics. That branch which treats of heat , 
its causes, nature, laws, phenomena, and applica- 
tions. 

Optics. That branch which treats of light, and 
vision ; their causes, nature, laws, and phenomena ; 
also, of the construction and use of instruments, 
designed to modify light, or aid vision. Such in- 
struments are always constructed on mathematical 
principles. 

Electrics. That branch which treats of Elec- 
tricity ; its development, nature, laws, phenomena, 
and applications ; also, of the construction and use 
of the various instruments designed for the devel- 
opment and application of the agent, or the eluci- 
dation of the principles involved. 

Physical Astronomy. That branch which 
tireats of the celestial bodies ; their nature, their 



DEFINITIONS. 27 

phenomena, the laws by which their motions arc 
governed, the forces by which theii motions arc 
maintained, and their influence on each other. 

22. 

BRANCHES OF TECHNICS. 

Agriculture. That branch which treats of the 
cultivation of fields for the purpose of producing 
roots, fruits, and grains, for the use of man 
and beast ; also, the raising and feeding of animals 
useful for food or labor. 

Horticulture. That branch which treats of 
the cultivation of gardens, for the purpose of pro- 
ducing vegetables, for immediate home consump- 
tion ; also, ornamental and medicinal plants. 

Pomology. That branch which treats of the 
jultivation of fruits; also, of their preservation, 
md preparation for market. 

Manufactures. That branch which treats of 
working, by hand or machinery, any raw material, 
as obtained from the earth, the agriculturist, or 
the miner into any form more suitable for use. 

23. 

BRANCHES OF GRAPHICS. 

Drafting. That branch which treats of repre- 
senting objects by lines, with mathematical pre- 
cision ; such representations being used as guides 
by mechanics in construction. 

Architecture. That branch which treats of 
the construction of houses, and other buildings, 
for purposes of civil life. 



28 GENERAL OUTLINE. 

Navttecture. That branch which treats of the 
construction of ships, other vessels, and boats, foT 
navigation, or home purposes. 

Civil Engineering. That branch which treats 
of the construction of railroads, canals, docks, 
bridges, roads, and other public works. It is dis- 
tinguished from Military Engineering, which treats 
of matters pertaining to war. 

24. 

BRANCHES OF POLEMICS. 

Strategy. That branch which treats of the 
management of an army, in such a manner as to 
diminish or destroy an enemy's forces. 

Tactics. That branch which treats of the man- 
agement and drill of different portions of an army 
— as the fleet, artillery, cavalry, and infantry. 

Military Engineering. That branch which 
treats of the construction of camps and fortifica- 
tions ; also, of the means of conducting a siege or 
blockade. 

Gunnery. That branch which treats of the 
management of ordnance, and other fire-arms. 

Fencing. That branch which treats of the 
sword, its use in attack or defence. 

_ 25. 

BRANCHES OF COSMICS ; OR THE FINE ARTS. 

Painting. That branch which treats of repre- 
senting objects on surfaces, by the proper applica- 
tion and arrangement of light, shade, and colors. 

Photography. That branch which treats of 
representing objects on surfaces by the chemical 



DEFINITIONS, 29 

action of HgHt, on various substances. It is divid- 
ed into various sub-branches ; as daguerreotyping, 
ambrotyping, petroleotyping, etc., depending oc 
the material of the surface on which the picture is 
taken. 

Engraving. That branch which treats of pro- 
ducing letters, figures, designs, or pictures, on 
some hard substance, for the purpose of being 
subsequently printed on paper. 

Scui.PTURE. That branch which treats of carv- 
ing, cutting, or hewing wood, stone, or metal, into 
images, to represent real or imaginary objects. 

Music. That branch which treats of the pro- 
duction and combination of agreeable sounds, in 
such a manner as to constitute melody or harmony; 
also, of the properties of sounds, and their relation 
to each other. 

Poetry. " The music of the soul." That 
branch which treats of the production of such 
thought, and the use of such metrical language, as 
will excite the imagination, and gratify the tast«. 

Dancing. "The poetry of motion." That 
branch which treats of the motion of the human 
form, in measured and graceful steps, curves, gyra- 
tions, and figures, usually in harmony with music 
and regulated by it. 



METHOD 

OP USING THE GENERAL CLASSIFICATION 01' 
KNOWLEDGE IN TEACHING. 

This Classification is an introduction to eyery 
brancli taught in every grade of school ; District 
School, Seminary, or College. No teacher should 
commence any subject, at least -with scholars who 
are able to read fluently, and intelligently, without 
pointing out the relation of that branch to other 
branches, and its location in the circle of the Sci- 
ences. Knowledge exists too much in eddies, and 
detached parcels, in most minds, even of our better 
class of teachers. The relations, scope, and sym- 
metry of the various branches, are almost entirely 
neglected, and they are studied as they are taught, 
as having no connection with each other; and not 
unfrequently, without teacher or scholar perceiv- 
ing any relations existing between his subject, and 
any existing object in heaven, oj earth, save the 
text-book, and an examination day. 

The true teacher may lay a broad foundation 
for every subject, outside of his text-book, in the 
presentation of this, or some similar outline of his 
subject with its related subjects. 
(30) 



MiETHOD OF U8INQ. 31 

In opening a school, or in commencing a term, 
when scholars have no lessons prepared to recite, 
this General Classification of Knowledge, in part, 
or entire, forms a very appropriate and interesting 
introduction to all the branches to be taught in 
the school. Scholars, especially the younger class- 
es, should not be required to copy it all, but only 
such parts as are more directly connected with 
the branches they are designing to pursue. 

The student of Grammar, for instance, when 
somewhat advanced in the study, will find new 
light and interest, in discovering its relations with 
the other branches of Phrenics, and the other de- 
partments of Literature. The grand division. 
Literature, with its four Departments, and the 
Bra:iches of Phrenics. might be copied into his 
Note Book or Copy Book. The definitions should 
also be copied, (unless scholars supply themselves 
with the printed classification,) and committed to 
memory. 

Again ; the student of Arithmetic, especially if 
reviewing, should acquaint himself with the vari- 
ous divisions of Mathematics; and should take a 
comprehensive view of the whole field, by means 
of that Department of the general classification 
and the definitions, given in The Normal; and the 
explanations which any competent teacher could 
add. 

So in other branches. Teachers and students 

should, in the commencement, and in the reviews, 

bring up the Department in which the Branch is 

located, and give on the blackboard, all the sister 

2* 



^J 



32 GENERAL OUTLINE. 

brandies, witt their definitions. Should any 
branch be taken up, which is not found in the 
General Classification, it will probably find its 
place as a division of one of the branches given. 
Conchology, for instance, is a division of Zoology; 
Meteorology is a subdivision of Geography ; Urfto- 
ography is a division of Physical Agtronomy. 



r 



PART II. 

ORTHOEPY 

AND 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 



■ ■i."-! ' yj ' "^Ji" "* " ' " ' ■•■■—■■ 



ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. 

The Editor takes pleasure in acknowledging 
the important aid afforded by Mr. C. S. Royce, 
Agent of the Ohio State Phonetic Association, in 
the preparation of this part on Orlhoepy and Or- 
thography. It is confidently believed that through 
him the most approved views of Phoneticians 
have been made subservient to a more systematic j 
and useful presentation of the principles involved 
in the connection of the written and spoken ele- 
ments of our language than in any work that has 
hitherto appeared. 



(34) 



l: 



INTRODUCTION. 



LOCATION AND BEARINGS. 

In commencing every subject of instruction, ji 
is the first business of the Teacher to direct his 
own attention to the place that subject holds in 
the Grand Circle of the Sciences. He may aid 
himself, by consulting the General Classification of 
knowledge, contained in Part I. If his pupils are 
sufficiently advanced, they should be required to 
copy his presentation of so much of that classifi- 
cation as he may think desirable, on the black- 
board ; and having learned the definitions, they 
should reproduce it from memory on the board, 
and give the definitions. 

In this manner, both teacher and scholar will 
discover the true location and bearing of whatever 
subject they undertake. 

Primary and secondary scholars, however, in 
reading and spelling, would hardly be profited by 
a consideration of the General Classification ; but 
all scholars more advanced would do well to ascer- 
tain what Branch they are studying while they 
are learning to spell. 

A presentation of Phrenics and the definitions 
of the branches it includes, place this matter in 
its proper light. 

(35) 



36 INTRODUCTION. 

I» THE NATURAL ORDER OF THE BRANCHES. 

The first study of the child is the voice of its 
mother. Almost instinctively it recognizes it, and 
gathers much meaning from its varied tones and 
accents. At a very early period the child is able 
to distinguish, also, many articulate sounds, and 
their signification. No sooner does it do this, 
than it endeavors to reproduce these sounds in the 
expression of its desires and feelings. 

Orthoepy, then, being the first study by nature ; 
it is proper that art should fall in with the plan. 
There is no advantage, however, in beginning any 
course of instruction till children are able to com- 
municate and receive ideas readily by means of 
spoken language. When instruction does com- 
mence, let it be so much in accordance with nature, 
with the child's nature, that he shall not conceive 
a repugnance for knowledge, that years will not 
eradicate. 

Orthoepy is but an introduction to Orthography. 
Then, Orthography serves as an introduction to 
Reading and Composition ; and these are indis- 
pensable in the pursuit of all other branches. 

METHODS OF TEACHING THE ALPHABET. 

The common or a-b-c method of teaching the 
alphabet is as serious an obstacle as can well be 
devised, in the way of the child, to hinder his 
progress, and render instruction repulsive ; yet 
millions have lived through it, in spite of a]\ the 
horrors of the passage. It is not to be wondered, 
however, that so many ever after hate their books 
and persist in ignorance and vice. 



INTRODUCTION. 37 

To show the absurdity of the plan : t'r»e child 
is compelled to call twenty-six shapeless charac- 
ters by their meaningless names, until he learns 
them. After he has learned them, he is worse of! 
ihan before, so far as their use is concerned. These 
names only mislead the child as to the true power 
of the letters, and are constantly in his way in 
finding out the sound of any of them in any of 
their combinations. 

Take, for instance, a in hat, or hall ; e in met, 
or hate. What idea of the sound of these letters 
in these words is obtained from their names? If 
\nj, a false idea, which the teacher has to correct 
by long drilling. 

The sounds or powers of letters unincumbered 
with these delusive names, can be obtained with 
great rapidity, if letters are so uiied as to be reli- 
able. The Phonotypic alphabet presents letters 
of a reliable character to children; and when they 
learn a letter, it has not to be unlearned or learned 
over aga^n from two to five times, involving every 
word in which it occurs in almost impenetrable 
obscurity. 

But the objector says, " The child has to learn 
the common alphabet after all, even after he has 
learned the Phonotypic with its forty-three charac 
ters. " I answer, that is true, but he learns it 
without effort on the part of the teacher. Having 
got the scent of ideas in words of Phonotypic let- 
ters, he will search them out in the Romanic, and 
will thread their mazes with an aridity so keen 
that he will compel his mothei to aid him, ra<her 



38 INTRODUCTION. 

than be himself compelled by his teacher, againpi 
a repugnance that is continually increasing. 

The use of the Komanic Alphabet may be 
learned by means of the Phonotypic, in one-tenth 
of the time, and with one-fiftieth of the labor be- 
stowed by the teacher in the common method. 

TEACHING SPELLING. 

The charge is brought against our modern 
schools, that "children do not learn to spell." It 
is further urged that they are crowded through 
the higher branches, while they cannot write a 
friendly letter without misspelling half of the 
words. Our teachers should be so trained, as to 
leave no ground for this charge; hence, much 
space is given in this number to the various meth- 
ods of teaching Spelling or Orthography. 

ORTHOGRAPHIC PARSING. 

The subject of Orthography is beginning to as- 
sume its proper place in our County Examinations 
of teachers. Many Boards are adopting the prac- 
tice of testing the knowledge of candidates by 
some plan of orthographic parsing. 

A complete system is developed in this work, 
which reaches all that is desirable to be known in 
the analysis of spoken and written words. Not 
only is a form given for the purpose, with explan- 
ations, but a great variety of words is analyzed 
by the form. So that if a teacher carefully study 
these examples, he never can be at loss for the 
proper method of disposing of any class of words 
or combinations of sounds, or letters. 



GENERAL OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 




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LANGUAGE. 



HISTORY. 
1 

ORIGIN' OF SPOKEN LANGUAGE. 
Language was a divine gift. Spoken tian- 
guage was used undoubtedly by our first parents. 
Adam gave names to all cattle, and to fowls of the 
air, and to every beast of the field, before there 
was a helpmeet for him ; so says the Bible. He 
is also represented as talking directly with that 
Being, from whom he derived the faculty of 
speech, and who trained him in its use. 

Let us. Teachers, remember who was the first 
of our profession; and not only so, but that no 
profession has been more highly honored. 

2 
ORIGIN OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE. 

The first account we have of Written Lansruage, 
IS the writing of the decalogue on the tablets of 
stone. It is remarked that all the Hebrew char- 
acters except one or two unimportant marks, which 
have since been added to the language, are found 
in the Ten Commandments. 

Before Written Language, Pictures, Monu- 
ments, and Medals were used to commemorate 
events, and to some slight extent to commu- 
nicate ideas between those of the same age. 

These forms, however, represented things, and not 
r40) 



LANGUAGE. U 

sounds used in words. The Romanic letters, 
which we use, are evidently derived from the 
Greek letters ; while the Greek letters, according;; 
to their historians, were brought by Cadmus from 
Phenicia, B. C, 1493. The Phenician alphabet is 
similar, in some respects, to the Hebrew, as is also 
the Greek. 

Mr. Pitman, in forming his Phonographic 
Alphabet, seems to have imitated the Hebrew 
more nearly than any other, especially in his 
vowel system. Thus we have in the latest and 
most improved form of Written Language, a 
restoration of the original characters to some 
extent, as taught to Moses on Mount Sinai. 

3 
DIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES. 

Profane History assigns no reason for the mul 
tiplicity of languages. Sacred History gives us 
an account of the " confusion of tons-ues," at the 
Tower of Babel, and the consequent dispersion of 
mankind. This may account for the existing 
number and variety of languages; or, if, as many 
commentators suppose, the "confusion of tongues" 
refers to a disagreement of the builders in their 
plans, and the consequent irreconcilable quarrels^ 
which drove these early inhabitants into diverse 
parts of the earth, then the changes which take 
place in the pronunciation and signification of 
/ many words in a few years in modern society. 
even though language is fixed by written charac 
ters, and the diversity of pronunciation in differ- 
ent localities in the same country, where there is 



.„' 



42 LANGUAGE. 

much and frequent intercourse, will s^ow that 
when tribes have wandered far from each other, 
with no written language, with no intercourse, 
their language, though originally the same, will, 
in a few generations, become so changed as to 
become entirely unintelligible to others than the 
tribe or tribes in more immediate proximity. The 
great diversity of languages ceases to be a won- 
der, then, even though men were originally of one 
blood, used one language, and no miracle inter 
posed to confound their language. 

4 
TIME OF HIGHEST DEVELOPMEx\T. 

Both Greece and Rome, at the time of their 
highest political power, enjoyed the greatest refine- 
ment in the arts and sciences. Lan2:ua2:e is no 
exception to the rule. Gradual improvement may 
be traced in the style of their authors from the 
earliest historical dawn of those nations to the 
period of their highest glory respectively. This 
improvement may be noticed in all the qualities 
which constitute excellence of language ; some of 
which are precision, euphony, flexibility, and sus- 
ceptibility of nice shades of difference in expres- 
sins: thousi-ht or feelino;. 

At the present time, the several spoken langua- 
ges have attained a higher degree of polish and 
power than at any previous period. Among the»e 
modern languages, the German is highly cultivated 
for the expression of thought, and the Italian for 
the exhibition of the emotions; while the Eno-- 
lish yields to no othor in its strength, flexibility, 



1 

1 ! 



LANGUAGE. 43 

and delicacy of expression for both thought and 

feeling. 

5 

CHIEF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANCIENT AND 

MODERN LANGUAGES. 

This lies in the more highly mechanical struc- 
ture of their verbs and nouns ; the nouns of the 
ancient languages having more methods of de- 
clension, and each declension more terminations 
than any of the modern nouns. This variety of 
termination gives equal precision, with much 
greater latitude of arrano-ement. The cases ot 
modern nouns are determined to some extent by 
their position with relation to the verb. The 
eases of ancient nouns depend entirely on their 
termination, and not in the least on their position 
in the sentence. Hence the ancient languages 
give a better opportunity for securing harmony in 
the arrangement than the modern. 

The verbs of the ancient languages are much 
more complete in their terminations, and of course 
make use of less auxiliary verbs. None are nec- 
essary save that denoting beinff, which is used only 

in the passive voice. 

6 
DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS, AND REMARKS. 

1. Language. Any method of communicating 
thought or feeling. 

2. Natural Language. Instinctive methods 
of comraunicatino; thought or feeling;. 

Remark. Brute animals possess their own 
instinctive forms of language; many of which 
fcrms are understood by other species than those 
which use them. 



44 LANGUAGE. 

Artificial Language. That \\hicli must be 
learned before it can be used. 

Vocal Language. That produced by the 
organs of speech. 

7 

Written Language. Any method of commu- 
nicating thought hy visible characters, depicted on 
a surface. 

Symbolic Language. That form of written 
lanffuase in which the characters are designed 
to represent ideas and not sounds. 

Phonetic Language. That form of written 
language in which the characters are designed 
to represent sounds. 

Pictorial Language. That form of symbolic 
language in which the ideas are plainly repre 
sented. 

Hieroglyphic Language. That form of 
symbolic language in which the ideas are so 
obscurely represented as to need an interpreter. 

Syllabic Language. That form of phonetic 
language in which the characters represent syl- 
lables. 

Alphabetic Language. That form of pho- 
netic language in which the characters represent 
separate articulate sounds. 

Equivocal Alphabetic Languages. Those 
in which a letter represents more than one sound, 
and in which a sound is represented by more than 
one letter. 

The Unequivocal Alphabetic Languages, 
are those in which the number of letters equals 
the number of separate articulate sounds — giving 



LANGUAGE. 43 

but one sound to each letter, and but one letter for 
each sound. 

Gesticulate Language. Any method o: 
communicating or impressing thought or feeling, 
by motions, postures, or appearances of the animal 
form, not producing or representing articulated 
sounds or written characters. 

8 

General or Universal Grammar. That 
form of o;rammar which treats of all those princi- 
ples and usages which are common to all Ian- 
guao'es. 

Particular Grammar. That form of gram- 
mar which treats of all those principles, usages, 
characters, and sounds, comprised in any particular 
language. 

English Grammar. That branch which treats 
of the English language. 

9 

Orthoepy. That division of grammar which 
treats of articulate sounds, and of their correct 
use in pronunciation. 

Orthography. That division of grammar 
which treats of letters, words, and spelling. 

Etymology. That division of grammar which 
treats of the derivation and formation of words. 

Orthogeny. That division of grammar which 
treats of tlie classification of words according to 
their uses. 

Lexicography. That division of grammar 
which treats of the signification of words. 

Syntax. That division of grammar which 
treats of the arrangement of words in sentences 



46 



LANGUAGE. 



Analysis. That division of grammar, whicb 
treats of the separation of sentences into their 
elements. 

Prosody. That division of grammar, which 
treats of versification and punctuation. 

General Remarh. The definitions of Cognate 
Branches in Phrenics, including Grammar, wil] 
be found in Part I, pages 16 and 17, Section 10. 



ORTHOEPY. 



( Nal 
\ Lii 
( Ra 



Nature, 
Sound. ^ Limit of Vibration, 
Rate of progress. 



Articulatory, 
Organs. \ Vocal. 

Respiratory, 



Articulate sounds. 



See Chart 



j See C 
] No, 1. 



Pronunciation. 



Divisions. 



Rules. 



Articulation, 

I' Common, 



Accent. 



1st., 
2nd. 



Discriminative. 

Emphatic, 

Poetic. 



^lethods of Teaching. 



1. Drill in articulate sounds. 

2. Drill in notation of Dictionaries 

3. Spell words Phonetically. 

4. Parse words Orthographically. 



ORTHOEPY. 



10 

DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS, AND REMARKS. 

Orthoepy. That division of grammar, which 
treats of articulate sounds, and their correct uso 
in pronunciation, 

Sound. A sensation produced on the auditory 
nerve by the rapid vibratory motion of air or other 
elastic substance. 

Remark 1. The vibration that produces the 
souud is often called sound, as, we say "sound 
travels," &c. 

Remark 2. Limit of Vibrations. The least 
number of vibrations in a second, that can yield 
a sound to human ear, is 32. The highest num 
ber is 30,000 ; though other animals may perceive 
vibrations more or less rapid than these limits. 

Remark 3. Rate of Progress. Sound travels 
through air at the rate of seven hundred sixty- 
three miles per hour, or eleven hundred twenty 
feet per second ; through liquids and solids at a 
rate many times greater. 

11 

Organs of Speech. All those distinct parts 

of the human system, which are necessarily used 

in producing the sounds of language 
(47) A 



-? ! 



18 ORTHOEPY. 

Articulatory Organs. Those organs of speech 
which are used in modifying or obstructing sound 
as produced by the other organs. 

They are labia, (lips,) dentes, (teeth,) palatum, 
(hard palate,) uvula, (soft palate,) nasal fossae, 
(cavities of the nose,) larynx, with its cartilages 
and muscles. 

Vocal Organs. Chordae Vocales, (vocal chords.) 
These are two pair of membranes, extending back- 
wards and forwards, opposite to each other, through 
the larynx. They are attached by their two ends 
and one side, to the walls of the larynx, leaving 
an open space between them, through which air is 
drawn in and forced out by the respiratory organs 

Voice or Vocal Sound. That sound produced 
by the vocal chords. 

Rrniark. The vibration of these chords during 
the emission of vocal sound, may be perceived by 
placing the fingers on the larynx, externally, at 
the projection of Adam's apple. The vibration 
can be detected at no other time. 

Respiratory Organs. Those organs of speech 
used in forcing; air throu2;h the other or^-ans. 
They arg trachea, (windpipe,) bronchi, (bronchial 
tubes,) pulmo, (lungs,) diaphragm, and the inter- 
costal, dorsal, and abdominal muscles. 

12 

Articulate Sound. That made by the organs 
of speech, and used in language. 

Voiced Sound, or Voice. A sound made by 
the vibration of the vocal chords. 

Voc.\L Sor:;D, or Vocal. A voiced sound, 



ORTHOEPY. 49 

modified but not obstructed by the articulatory 
organs. 

SiMPi.E Vocal. A vocal, made without a change 
in the position of the articulatory organs during 
its emission. 

Compound Vocal. A vocal, made by a change 
in the position of the articulatory organs, from 
that required by one simple vocal to that required 
by another, during its emission. 

Remark. This change commences with the 
emission of the sound, and continues until the 
close ; hence the element.s of the compounds ari3 
Lot heard in their purity. 

CoALEscENT. An articulatc sound, that always 
precedes, and unites with, a vocal. 

13 

SuBvocAL Sound, or Subvocal. A voiced sound 
modified and obstructed by the articulatory organs. 

Aspirated Sound or Aspirate. An artic- 
ulate sound made without the vibration of the 
vocal chords. 

Pure Aspirate. An aspirate, modified but 
not obstructed by the articulatory organs. 

Obstructed Aspirate. An aspirate, modified 
and o'jstructed by the articulatory organs. 

14 

Labial. An articulate sound, modified or 
obstructed at the lips. 

Remark. The vocals and pure aspirates are 
modified only, while the subvocals and the other 
aspirates are obstructed also. 

Dental. An articulate sound modified or 
obstructed at the teeth or gums. 



I I 



50 ORTHOEPY. 

Falatal. An articulate sound, modified or 
obstructed at the hard palate. 

Guttural. Aii articulate sound, modified or 
obstructed at the soft palate. 

Remark \st. Sounds are obstructed at the lips 
by the lips alone, or by the teeth and lips. 

Remark 2d. Sounds are obstructed at the teeth, 
gums, or hard palate, by the tip of the tongue ; 
and at the soft palate, by the root of the tongue. 

15 

Abrupt, (also called Explodentand Mute.) An 
articulate sound, made by such a perfect contact 
of the organs as entirely prevents the escape of 
air externally. 

Continuant, (also called Subvocal.) An artic- 
ulate sound, made by such partial contact of the 
organs, as to admit of escape of air externally. 

Liquid. A continuant, susceptible of simulta- 
neous combination with other obstructed sounds. 
The liquids are I and r. 

Nasal. A continuant, made by the escape of 
air through the cavities of the nose only. 

Cognate Sounds. Those .«nunds made by the 
articulatory organs, in the same positions, and dif- 
fering only in the vibrations of the vocal chords. 

10 

Pronunciation. The enunciation of the sounds 
of a word with correct articulation and accent. 

Articulation, (joining.) The distinct enun- 
ciation of the sounds in words. 

Accent. The greater stress given to one sylla- 
ble of a word than to others ; also, the greater 
force given to long syllables in poetry. 



ORTIIOKPY. 51 

Common Accent. Tliat irivcn in the orJinnrv 
pronunciation of a word, without rctcrcnce to an)- 
other word. 

DiscRiMiNATivK AccENT. That givcn to words 

of the same articulation to distinguish different 

parts of speech. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Nouns from Verbs. Ac'cent, accent'; con'cert, 
concert'; in'sult, insult', etc. 

2. Adjectives from Verhs. Ab'sent absent'; com'- 
pound, compound'; fre'quent, frequent', etc. 

Emphatic Accent. That in which the stress 
is transferred from the ordinary syllable to another, 
for the purpose of giving antithetic emphasis more 
distinctly. 

Poetic Accent. That which is placed on long 
syllables of a poetic foot; even though those syl- 
lables should be monosylla.::c words. 

17 
METHODS OF TEACHING PRONUNCIATION. 

DRILL IN ARTICCLaTE SOUNDS. 

Commence with vocals as given in Chart No. 1. 
1 Repeat each long sound twice in order. 

2. Direct the class to do the same in concert 
with yourself. 

3. Direct the class to do the same without your 
aid. Continue this process until the large major- 
ity make the sounds correctly, and in the order ol 
the chart. 

4. Drill individuals failing, before the class, in 
groups, or singly, till each pupil masters all the 
difficulties. 






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£^ 



«> 

be 

a 

3 O ,J° 



OH 



^ -3 



i5 



!2 



03' 

5z; 




■-X! 








J C3 P- 


Cu 


o. 


CM 


J 








tu 








c 








o 
























o o 


a> 


o 
in 


'a. 






0) 


■** 


fl 


^ 


?i 


o 

c 




o 


o 


o 


^ 


^ 


^ 


Oh 


V. 


a 
.2 

1 







p. 



^ ^ 



2 3 

s ^ 

= to 

3 



Joe 

o ^ a 

o » n 

— c '^ 

a ai a 

•S bC o 

&© bn 

».-^§ 

PQ CO 



.s • 
>'i 

2 =* 

00 *• 

^ o 

O 



I 
6 



•O 

o 



.a 
o 
a 

D 




5? si 
tn S 



* 


ci 


r 


'■S 


L*J 


o 


05 


c 


O 


P. 


(T) 


to 


cj 


^ 


a 


►. 




3 


w 


o-O 



1 



J3 
O 



.2 ©.iJ 
15 'S« 

^ <5 



•spunog aj^inoi^jy 



TB3y 



n 



CL| cd 



zfi 




1—3 


n> 


B 




a 









Q 


CO 


^ 




"'ie 


<J 






^Q 






e 



COGNATES. 



Chart No. 2. 

a 



J3 S 



O) 



N :« S * 






c* 



3 
O 



"IS -^ 



b£ 

a 



<D 



a 



.„ >,:». t: ^ ''d ^ — ' * ^ 



«; ^ of J^' i£ 

^ o ctj ^ ;- r- trj 2 .;= :: ^ 










^ 



o 



<1 O 
__-__/ 

(5 4) 'I 'M 's -y _j 



ORTHOEPY. 5& 

5. Pursue the same course with the short vocals. 

6. Alternate the cognate vocals on Chart No. 2 
and in case a cognate is wanting, say " wanting.' 

7. Repeat and vary these drills until every 
Rcholar can go through the vocals long and short, 
and name the organ at which the sound is modi- 
fied. 

9. Pursue a similar course with the obstructed 
sounds beginning with the aspirates and follow- 
in<>: with the subvocals on Chart No. 1 ; then with 
cognate sounds, on Chart No. 2. 

18 

DRILL IN THE NOTATION OF DICTIONARIES. 

Take Chart No. 3, and go over in concert, the 
names of sounds as given, with the sounds follow- 
ing, and the notation of any dictionary used in 
school. 

Thus : Long a — a, notation a, with a short horizontal 
mark over it. 

Short a — a, notation a, with a curved line over it. 

Broad a — o, notation a, with a circumflex over it. 

Italian a — q, notation a, with a diferesis over it. 

Medial a — ^, wanting in Webster's dictionary. 

This will be sufficient to show the drill on the 
notations It need be followed no further in this 
form. 

2. Require the scholars to look out words in 
their dictionary, and describe the marks to signify 
the irregular sounds of the consonants, as city, 
cane, oflf, of, church, chaise, etc. 
3* 



! i 
I I 



U 



56 ORTHOEPY 

19 

SPELLING WORDS THONETICALLY. 

[ 1. This should be practiced more or less in con- 

nection with every exercise, in concert, the Teach- 
er accompanying; next, the class in concert without 
liis aid, lastly, individual scholars, always giving 
opportunity for the members of the class to criti- 
cise the spelling of the individuals, — they first 
raising their hands for permission to do so. 

2. Let the Teacher select such phonotypic char- 
acters in order, from Chart No. 1 or No, 2, as shall 
form words. The class will pronounc3 each sound, 
as its representative is touched with the pointer, 
until the elements of a word are thus separately 
pronunced, then, a signal given, they are expected 
to pronounce the word together. This exercise 
should begin with monosyllables, and from these 
proceed to the most complicated and difficult 
words. 

20 

CRITICISM ON PRONUNCIATION. 

In recitation of all studies, opportunity should 
be given the classes for mutual criticism on pronun- 
ciation, as well as in other particulars. 

This matter of criticism is managed thus . 

The teacher asks, " Are there any errors in pro- 
nunciation ?" 

Pupils who have noticed errors, raise their 
hands. 

The teacher calls upon such a scholar as is least 
in the habit of criticism, to mention the error. 



r 



oRxnoEpy. 57 

The scholar does it in this form : "Mr. A. B. 
pronounced 'heard' * hecrd.' He should have 
given the close sound of e rather than the long." 
The scholar continues, "he pronounced 'demon- 
strate' ' demonstrate,' accenting the first syllable 
instead of the second." 

In case of doubt in the mind of any one, cither 
pupil or teacher, a scholar is requested to examine 
the authorities, Worcester's or Webster's diction- 
ary, which should always be on the teacher's table, 
nnd in the pupil's desk. 



J 





M 

Ph 




a 






•n , 

O «3 



2 i 



cj a> 



r^ 



1^ 

S 
o 
O 



c ? ^ « 
.5 rt c3 c3 









CO 

d 

(d 
O 



>* 



.5 t->.„ .^ cJ 

.2. rt s rt S2 

o.- rt c3 c5 

K o a (A (X ^ 





o 






0) 


3 






O 




o 


.2 


O 


'S 


'S 


> 




c3 






5 






— o 



B 



j_a -U ._- t- '73 , , 1' . — ' li 



•Xi .1= o O 



> ^ 
o o 

B r- 



o 



•71^— Goes 



1 c? 



0) 



0-§"3 03 ♦ 
^&: 



:a3 # c3 lO O) # 



i-i.^ 0:00 



CO 

.2 
"o 



bot: bo.5 ;=^ 



2 "^ 
o 



bC i^ a, 
coo 



jc«^:3^geqjoQO 



C o := o 

O ^ J> rid 



be If 

c o 
o X 

hJ CO 



•SIOAVO^ 



si O 



o o 



S O 



3 



O ££ 103 jcS ~o3 :?3 03 <cj i<X) >a) -.O '^ '^ O >0 <0 <d 



.3 S 



be »- 



c ^ 



US) 



'>-. 



• O _ 



■O :0 
Q O 

■o % 



» ^ 



r ■ — ( S / O 



- ^ to 
o be fcn 



73 O 






a 



^ <D 



-^ .2 be h c: -^ o ^ oj G o.-g rt := Tr"^ ^ rt 5« qj 

> ? > <X> KS 



'-^ c! -. <D t- 

^ 45 ^ ^ N .S 

O *:> ♦J C/3 rt M 



-^ c« fc/^.,_j2 >^ _ £ - C-;:i 




'T3 =*- tc tc-c •'->^ ^-gs::ffi.crt-M-^> 



^jn rj ^ ^ -=2 



bC 



"3 «*- bC fcC^ .^^ ^£aPHCrfc,ai-w>^><XJ^fcJDy'5'5'^'^G 



-r- =*- tc jr. 



^ .^^ ^ £ c cu 



cr" t. 05 ■•J i* ^ 



•S^^UBUOSUOQ 




•s;j?iioi{ii[d V 



^59V 



ORTHOGRAPHY 



^ormfl. 



9 



j Italic. 
Typical.] Roman. 

i(|>lD (Srnglisli. 

dcrmau fert. 
.ORNAMENTAL 



Grammatical. 



Rhetorical. 



jCap 
(Smr 



iO lasses. < o 
Rules. \ 

all. ' 

\ Italic. 

SMALL CAP. 

LARGE CAP. 
Bold Faced. 



j Larpr, 
Small. 



Sizes. 



DltaoBd. 

Agate, 

Pearl. 

Nonpareil, 

Minion, 

Brevier, 

Bourgeois, 

Long Primer, 



' Small Pica, 
Pica, 
English, 

Great Primer, 

Arrangement in Classes, ; \ See Chart 
Genera, Species, etc. s ( No. S. 

Renreseiitation SBy Pi*oper represontativea, 
Kepreseiitation. j^^ substitatcs. 



ORTHOGRAPHY.— Continued. 




p. 

tn 



® 2 


o 

Si 










o a 


<u 


3 


<^ 


S 


tf 






fi 


o 




a 


n 




u; 


> 




CO 



^ 






(61) 



UKTHOGRAPHY.— Continued. 




CG2) 



hiisin,! oindv--Soq}j() joj nijoj 



ORTHOGKAPHY 



21 

ORTHOORArHY. That division of grammai 
which treats of letters, syllables, words, and spel- 
linj;. 

Letter. A visible character, representinu; by 
itself, or with one or more besides, an articulate 
sound: also used to detenniiie siiinification. 

Typical Forms. These are given in the names 
that distinguish them in the classification. There 
are many ornamental forms in use, not given. 

Grammatical Forms. These are used for em- 
emphasis or other rhetorical distinction. 

Power of a Letter. The sound which a 
letter represents in a word; also the influence 
which one letter exerts upon the representative 
character of another. 

22 

Vow^el. a letter used to represent a vocal 
sound ; the basis of a syllable. 

Consonant. A letter used to represent a sub- 
vocal or aspirate sound, modifying the basis of a 
syllable. 

Remark. Phonographers write many syllables 
without a vowel as a basis, contending that a sub- 
vocal is often the basis of a syllable, c. (/, apple, 
often. They claim that there is no vocal heard in 

■ en 



J I 



64 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

the second syllable, and that they should le writ 
ten apl, oftn, or ofn. It seems to me, however, 
more in accordance with the principles of our 
orthography to consider a vocal, accented or unac- 
cented, plain or obscure, as the basis of every syl- 
lable. 

Aphthong, or Silent Letter. A letter which 
represents no sound, but is used either to modify 
the representative character of another, or merely 
to determine signification. 

Remark. An aphthong may be a vowel or a 
consonant aphthong, according to the more com- 
mon use of the letter. 

Explanation. E^ in the word lade, changes the 

sound of a from short to long ; also ^, in sign, 

changes the sound of i short to long; also w in 

write, determines the signification of the word, 

and distinguishes it from that of rite ; also, h in 

dumb, determines signification, since dum has no 

signification. 

23 

Diphthong. One or two vowels, representing 
a combination of two vocal sounds. 

Explanation. The diphthong i represents a 
combination of Italian a and long e. 

The diphthong long u represents a combination 
of long e and close o. 

The diphthong oi represents a combination of 
broad a and short i. 

The diphthong ou represents a combination of 
Italian a and close o. 

These are all the proper diphthongs in the 
En2:lish Lanjmage. 



\ 



ORTHOGRAPHY. G5 

24 

A V^owEL Digraph, or improper diphthong, is 
a combination of two voweli, in which only one 
receives a sound, the other being: a modifier, 

A Conjoined Vowel Digraph is one in which 
the two vowels are not separated by a consonant. 

A Disjoined Vowel Digraph is one in which 
the two vowels are separated by one or more con- 
sonants. 

A Consonant Digraph is a combination of two 
consonants, one or both of which are required to 
represent a sound. 

Remark. A consonant not required to repre- 
sent a sound of the word, is an aphthong, whether 
modifying the representative character of a letter 
or not. Thus, in the consonant digraph gn^ in 
the word condign, the g modifies the sound of t, 
but is not necessary for the representation of the 
final sound, and hence is an aphthong. 

A Combined Digraph is a combination of a 
consonant and a vowel to represent a subvocal or 
an aspirate sound. 

Explanation. The consonant #, and the vowel I 
are used in the terminal syllable tlon^ to represent 
the aspirate sound of sh or ch. Ci, ce, and si, are 
used in a similar manner. 

Vowel Trigraph. A combination of three 
vowels, representing one or two sounds. 

Remark. Eau in beau, represents one sound; 
in heautg, it represents two combined. 

Disjoined Trigraph. One in which a conso- 
nant occurs between two of the vowels. 



, ( 



1 

1 ! 



66 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

• 25 

Syllable. One or more sounds uttered at one 
impulse of the breath ; also, the letters represent- 
ing any sound or sounds so uttered. 

Ultimate Syllable. The last syllable in a 
word. 

Penultimate Syllable, or Penult. The last 
syllable but one in a word. 

Antepenultimate Syllable. The last sylla- 
ble but two in a word. 

Preantepenultimate Syllable. The last syl- 
syllable but three in a word. 

Remark. The syllables of a word are also 
described in their numerical order, commencing at 
the left, as first, second, third, &e. 

Base of a Syllable. The vocal or vowel 
used in its formation. 

Modifier. Any sound preceding oi succeed- 
ing the base of a syllable, or letter or digraph 
representing such sound. 

Antecedent. Any sound preceding the base 
of a syllable; or letter or digraph representing 
such sound. 

Consequent. Any sound succeeding the base 
of a syllable; or letter or digraph representing 
such sound. 

Remark. A letter representing a sound, pre- 
ceding another, is parsed as an anteciedent, though 
the order of the letter should differ from that of 
the sounds represented by them. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 67 

20 

Word. The received sign of an idea, expressed 
;n one or more articulate sounds, oi in visible 
characters representing such sounds. 

Simple Word. One which cannot be divided 
into separate words without radically alterin.<r the 
signification. 

Compound Word. One which can be divi 
Ued into separate words without radically alter 
ing their signification. 

Primitive Word. One which cannot be re- 
duced to a simpler form, without radically altering 
its signification. 

Derivative Word. One which can be re 
duced to a simpler form, without radically altering 
its signification. 

Remark. A compound word is considered 
primitive, if all its parts are primitive, otherwise 
a derivative. A derivative is considered simple, 
unless it plainly comes under the definition of a 
compound. 

The Base of a Compound Word is that word 
representing the fundamental idea. 

The Modifier in a Compound Word is that 
word which describes the other. 

The Base of a Derivative AVord is the prim- 
itive word from which it is derived. 

The Modifiers in a Derivative Word are the 
prefixes or suffixes, or both. 

Prefix. One or more syllables, not usrd as a 
word of similar meaning in the English language, 
but placed before words ♦o modify their significa- 
tion. 



68 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

ScFFix. One 01 more syllables, not used as a 
word of similar D.eaninc: in the En<:;lish lanfz:uau;e. 
but placed after words to modify their significa- 
tion. 

27 

Monosyllable A word of one syllable. 

Dissyllable. A word of two syllables. 

Trisyllakle. a word of three syllables. 

Accented Syllable. One that is pronounced 
with more force than others in the same word. 

Remark 1. Aeeont may be primary when it is 
greutrr Ihau that received by some other syllable 
in the same word; or secondary, when it is less 
than that received b}'' some other syllable in the 
same word. 

Ilemark 2. In prosody, an accented syllable is 
long in quantity, an unaccented syllable, short in 
quantity, L c. of time taken to pronounce it. 

28 

Spelling. A distinct expression of the letters 
or sounds of a word, in their proper order. 

Orthographic Spelling. The expression of the 
letters, of which a written word is composed, and 
in their proper order, according to the received 
t uthority. 

Phonetic Spelling. The separate expression 
of the elementary sounds of which a word is com- 
posed, and in their proper order, according to es- 
tablished usage. 

GENERAL RULES FOR SPELLING. 
Rtde 1. Write no word unless sure of its 
orthography and signification. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. (J13 

Rule 2. Consult the dictionary in case ol 
doubt. 

Rule 3. Apply the rules for derivatives. 

Remark. The special rules for spelling are to 
be found in every good grammar, and spelling- 
book, and need special attention. All grades, 
except primary, should be thoroughly drilled in 
their use. It is not enough to memorize them. 
More than one-half the bad spelling found in 
school exercises, as well as in business operations. 
may be justly charged to 'gnorance of thes; 
special rules. 



TEACHING THE ALPHABET. 



29 
teacher's preparation. 

The preparation necessary for the successful 
teaching of Phonotypy, the all-important prepara- 
tion, I might say, is a thorough practical knowl- 
edge of the articulate sounds of our language: 
an ability to enunciate them distinctly, either sep- 
arately or in combinations, and to give such direc- 
tions to others as will, when followed, enable them 
to do the same. 

30 

PREPARATION OF PUPILS. 

The only preparation necessary for the pupils, 
is, that they should be of a proper school age, that 
the school should be properly organized, and that 
the teacher should so gain the confidence of his 
young pupils by a pleasant conversation, or other 
means, as to lead them to speak and act with the 
freedom of children in a well-regulated home. T 
very much prefer that they should know nothing 
of any alphabet. 

TEACHING THE ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 

The first effort in imparting instruction should 
be to give them some knowledge of articulate 
sounds. In doing this, avoid the use of techni- 
calities. Select a few such words as saw. urn/, so, 
(70) 



TEACHlN'i THE ALPHABET. 71 

s^^, and taking one of them, as saic^ call upon tln^ 
pupils to speak it carefully a few times. The 
teacher should now resolve it into its elements; 
enunciating them at first, with a long pause, as. 
s e, then with less and less piuse, as, 

S G, S G, S G, S - - G, S - G. 

leading them, if possible, to perceive that those 
sounds, if enunciated by one impulse of the voice, 
would constitute the word saw, without his thus 
uttering them. But if this can not be done, tlie 
teacher may pronounce the word; after which, he 
should separate it into its elements, and proceed 
as before. 

Now he should take the elements of another 
word, as, sai/, without calling their attention to 
the w^ord by pronouncing it, and enunciate their 
elements, as in the other case; asking after e:ich 
enunciation, what the word would be if the sounds 
were spoken together. Generally, if this is skil- 
fully managed, there will be a correct response; 
after which the sounds should be uttered more 
and more rapidly, to show them clearly that they 
were right. 

Now, take another word, as, see, using special 
care that they shall perceive from the separate 
elements, what word they constitute. 

•J _. 

TEACHING TO READ. 

If we have succeeded thus far in cultivating our 
pupils' powers of observing sound, there will l>o 
little trouble in teaching them the letters that 
represent those sounds. 



r' 



i2 TEACHING THE ALPHABET. 

Calling their attention to the first sound in 
" iiee, " let us print upon the blackboard the letter 
"s" as the representative, the ^^ picture'' of that 
sound. We should now cultivate their powers ot 
observation, by calling upon them to find a simi- 
lar letter on the charts ; of which there should be 
at least two suspended before the class: also, 
among the tablets. ( Tlicse are pieces of card-hoard 
ivirh a letter upon each.) As each child finds the 
letter on a chart or on a tablet, he should enun- 
ciate the sound represented. 

The name of the letter should not be taught 
them. If any of them, already knowing the 
name, should call the letter " 7:7s, " say *' Yes, that 
is its name, but what sound does it represent? 
What sound are you to make when you see it? 

33 

LESSON SECOND. 

Review the first lesson, calling their attention, 
as before, to the analysis of "saio, say^ so, see, " and 
to " S " as the representative of the initial sound 
of those words. Now teach them "8 " as the rep- 
resentative of the final sound in " sec. " 

34 

COMBINING LETTERS TO REPRESENT WORDS. 

The pupils have already discovered that sounds 
oombined form spoken words ; and they now 
know the representatives of two sounds. The 
combining of these representatives may now be 
taught them. Print those letters on the black 
board thus : 



\ ! 



TEACHING THE ALPHABET. 73 

s------e 

s - - - - 8 

S — - 8 

S8 

Now call upon them to enunciate those sounds, 
as you point to the letters. Pass the index slowly 
from one letter to the other in the upper line, and 
more rapidly as you descend, until they blend the 
two sounds, and pronounce the word "see. " 

Printed cards, with the lessons on them, should 
also be used, but they should not supersede the 
use of the black-board. 

35 

SUBSEQUENT LESSONS. 

Proceed in a similar manner to teach them the 
letters a, e, m, and w; and they will read several 
words and a few sentences. They should now be 
taught to spell by sound all the words they can 
read ; after which they may learn other letters, 
always using each new letter in combination with 
familiar ones. 

The Phonetic Primer should be given to the 
children at this stage, and they should be permit 
ted to read from it in connection with the black- 
board and charts. Some teachers succeed finely 
with the black-board and Primer, without charts 
or tablets. 

36 

WORDS OF THREE LETTERS. 

When they are to be taught words of three hi- 



7i TEACHING THE ALPHABET. 

ters, familiar words of two letters, followed by a 
third letter also familiar, may be presented on the 
black-board thus : 

h3 - - - S 

h^ - s 

The class should pronounce the word hl5, ana 
Uien enunciate the sound represented by s, as the 
teacher points from the one to the other, moving 
his index more and more rapidly, until uncon- 
sciously th'^.y find themselves pronouncing the 
word h3S. Other words, as met, mat, tam, 
should be taught by similar means. 

Now take the tablets, and show them a similar 
word, as mc, and after they have pronounced it, 
drop the hand that hoHs ^he word, and with the 
other hand present a tablet hi>ving the letter t on 
it. The class will enunciate it : when the other 
hand should be raised and the taMr^ts held so as 
to form the word met. 

Then, with the right hand, present 111-^ m only, 
and after the enunciation of the sound, remove 
that hand, and present the word st with the other. 
After they pronounce the word 8t, prefix the ai to 
it, and they will pre r ounce the word met. If 
they fail to pronounce the word at the first trial, 
make another efi"ort. By no means pronounce the 
word for them. Manage skilfully, and the pro- 
nunciation of the word will ccme from the class. 



o 



TEACHING THE ALPHABET. 7h 



37 
Now take other words of three letters, and ])ro 
c?eed with them in the same manner: choosin 
such as will leave icords^ after removing either the 
inital, or the final letter, as mat; which, by remov- 
ing the initial letter, leaves at, or the final leaves 

ma. 

After this, when a pupil, in reading, comes to a 
\^-ord of three letters, which he cannot pronounce, 
instead of pronouncing it for him, hide the initial 
or final letter from his view, and after the remain- 
der of the word has been pronounced, permit him 
to see the whole word, and, usually, he will pro- 
nounce it 

Longer words may be taught them in a similar 
manner. 

After all the Phonetic letters are learned, the 
children should continue reading Phonotypy until 
they can read well in the Second Phonetic Reader; 
after which they may make the Iransitioa to lio 
manic reading. 






TRANSITION TO ROMANIC READING 



38 

I must caution the young teacher against per- 
mitting his pupil to make the transition too soon. 
Children sometimes make the transition success - 
fully, after having barely read the Phonetic Prim- 
er, but sometimes they find it very difficult. But 
by waiting, as I have suggested, nothing is neces- 
sary but to permit them to read in the Second 
Reader of any series, and it will be found that 
they will need much less instruction than children 
reading in the same book that were taught in the 
common way, and they need no special instruction. 
They may be taught as others are. 

39 

SPELLING. 

AVithout the direct aid of the teacher, they will 
now have learned the names of the Roman letters, 
and they may be taught the common orthography 
as other children are ; and it will be found that 
they will by far excel children taught i i the com- 
mon way, not only in articulation, -but in spelling 
also. 

40 

EMPLOYMENT FOR THE CHILDREN. 

What has been written refers only to class in 
(76) 



SPELLING. t i 

btruction. For employment between recitations, 
the children should be permitted and encouraged^ 
not required and compelled^ to print on slates all the 
exercises they read, copying them from the exer- 
cises placed on the black-board by the teacher, oi 
from cards suspended before them, or from theii 
Primers. 

rt 

41 

TEACHING ORTHOGRAPHY TO PRIMARY CLASSES, 

Many teachers use no other Spelling Book than 
the Reading Books ; thus teaching their pupils to 
spell the words they are daily using in their les- 
sons. In this way they have, or should have, a 
correct idea of the meaning of the words of their 
spelling lessons, though they may not, at this early 
age, be able to define them. 

42 • 

STUDYING SPELLING LESSONS. 

While making, and after having made, the tran- 
sition from the Phonetic print, children should be 
required to study spelling lessons. The best way 
to do this is to print them on their slates, until 
they learn the script form of letters ; when they 
should use that form, or write their lessons. The 
practice of requiring pupils to study their lessons 
a given number of times, only teaches them to 
hurry over their studi/, and not to study to anj j 

purpose. It is not the vundjer of times a lesson 
has been studied that should be considered the 
mark of success, but the ability to spell every word 
in the lesson. 



78 PRIMARY TEACHING. 

43 
JIANNER OF CONDUCTING RECITATIONS IN SPELLING 

We cannot vary the mode of conducting spelling 
recitations as much as with the more advanced 
classes. One very good method, and perhaps the 
best one, is to require them to read the lesson 
from their slates ; each one pronouncing a word, 
and then spelling it and again pronouncing it. 

Every pupil should give notice of any mistake 
observed, by raising the hand. In this way, the 
teacher can ascertain whether they have studied 
their lessons aright. The side of the slates, con- 
taining the lesson, should be held up to the teacher 
for criticisms : and the criticisms should embrace, 
not only the size and appearance of the letters, 
hut the proper arrangement of the words in col- 
'"^umns. 

The slate should now be laid down on the reci- 
tation seat or on the floor, with the side containing 
the lessons from the pupils, and the words pro- 
nounced for them once, and onljj once; and a pu 
pil should be permitted to try to spell the word 
once, and o»(?/(>iice. If he can not spell it on the first 
trial, he has not learned his lesson ; and he is now 
on the floor to be examined in reference to that 
matter, and not to learn his lesson. 

It is a good plan, frequently, to call upon some 
pupil in the class to pronounce the words for the 
class, under the eye and ear of the teacher If a 
word is misspelled, it should be made a part of the 
next lesson. 



WFELLING 1^ 

SECf/RINO THE i^TTENTION. 

Pronouncing a word but once, will go far to- 
wards securing the attention of every pupil; but 
in addition to this, when a word is misspelled, an- 
other pupil should be called upon to spell it with 
out being spoken to. A movement of the eye, oi 
hand, or some other sign, is all the notice that i& 
necessary, if the pupils are giving their attention ; 
and a failure on the part of the pupil to receive 
this notice, should be considered as much a failure 
as the misspelling of a word. 

45 

KEEPING UP AN INTEREST. 

A variety of methods may be resorted to, 
though not as great a variety as with older pupils. 

The class may commence all standing, as each 
one spells he may sit down, until all are seated. 
The class may then rise in order as they spell, un- 
til all are up. The practice of having a head and 
foot to a class is often resorted to, and with good 
effect, if properly managed. If this practice is 
found to discourage any in the class, it should be 
abandoned. 

A better method is for the teacher to call on the 
scholars at the close of the recitation for the num- 
ber each one has missed, which should be recorded, 
and have a bearing on the grade of the tickets 
given them to take home weekly. 

The respelling of misspelled words by those Avho 
misspelled them, and then by the class in concert, 

is .'Another method. 

4* 



80 "KIMAJY TEACHING. 

46 
SPELLING WITH OTHER RECirATIONS. 

In reading exercises, if a word is mispronounted, 
attention should be called to its orthography. In 
their exercises in Mental Arithmetic, words that 
they use, and other words, should occasionally be 
sj^Ued by the pupils, aud S9 ia other studies. 



L___. 



r 



TEAOHING SPELLING TO SECONDARY 
CLASSES. 



47 

Remarks. — I make use of no spelling book, bul 
assign a definite part of a reading lesson as a spel 
ling lesson. The advantage of this is, that schol- 
ars learn the forms of words in connection with 
their use in sentences, and associate their formn 
rather with their signification than with their pla- 
ces on the page of the spelling book. 

What teacher has not seen instances, in which a 
scholar could spell every word in the Spelling 
book, pcrhapo, without any one to "put out the 
words; " Y/hile, if called upon to write an essay, 
or a letter, that same scholar would misspell the 
most comraon words? Such words, as, there their, 
are air, two too to, jjjlain plane, are almost cer- 
tainly misspelled in wrjting by spelling book spel- 
lers. 

48 

03AJ. METHOD. 

Let the class stand in a line, in order of their 
numbers as determined at the close of the last 
spelling exercise ; save that No. 1 takes his place 
at the foot of the class. 

Pionouaee a word for No. 2, who now stands at 
the bead. He spells it. All in the class who 

csn 



^2 SECONDARY TEACHING. 

think lie spelled it wrong, will raise the hand, if 
the word was spelled right, those who raised their 
hands go below those who did not: all the schol- 
ars of each kind keeping their relative places with 
those of the same kind ; but all the scholars who 
were mistaken will take their places below all who 
were right in their opinion of the spelling as given 
by scholar No. 2. 

If the scholar misspelled the word, then the 
first scholar in order who raised his hand is called 
upon to spell the word, then the next, and so on 
till all who thought the word mispelled are tested. 
Th-ose who are thus tested and fail, then take their 
places below with those who indicated that they 
thought the word spelled correctly, by not raising 
their hands. 

This method never fails to secure the attention 
of all in the class, and involves no confusion or 
disorder, if the teacher follow the direction of 
keeping every scholar of each kind in his place 
relatively with others of his own kind. The two 
kinds being: first, those who spell correctly or in- 
dicate correctly by raising their hands or not rais- 
ing them ; and second, those who spell incorrectly 
or indicate incorrectly, it being understood that 
all who show that they were mistaken take their 
places below all who show that they were right. 

Successive scholars are called upon to spell 
words, and the same indications taken and the 
same course pursued, till the time allotted fcr the 
exercise is exhausted. 






SPELLING. bli 

At the close of the exercise, the .eachcr calls 
apon each member of the class, as he has hiin en- 
rolled in his class book, for the number of times 
he was mistaken in his opinion of the spelling, 
and he is graded accordingly. 

The class is then dismissed in order, No. 1 
speaking his number and going to his seat; No. 2 
following in the same manner. So of all the rest. 

Short sentences, or phrases, containing as many 
words as the class can well recollect, may be pro- 
nounced at once, instead of single words. This 
method has the advantage of more distinctly im- 
pressing the meaning of words in connection with 
their spelling 

49 

TEACHING SPELLING TO SECONDARY CLASSES BY 
USE OF SLATES. 

Words or sentences, which have been studied, 
are dictated to a class of scholars sitting on a rec- 
itation seat or at their desks, till perhaps they 
have written twenty words, each, on their slates. 
Slates are then exchanged. Some scholar is then 
called upon to give orally the spelling of the first 
word written on the slates. Teacher says, " IIow 
many agree? " All who think his spelling right, 
raise the hand. Teacher says, " How many disa- 
gree?" All such raise the hand. Teacher notes 
those who are wrong. Teacher then says, "How 
many slates are wrong ? " All who have slates 
with the word incorrectly spelled, raise their slates 
to a vertical position on their knees, or on their 



Hi SECONDARY TEACHING. 

1 desks. They are then called on in order, to give 

the correct spelling ; or, to save time, the teacher 
says, after one has given an incorrect spelling, 
*' How many slates have that spelling? " He thus 
continues with the word till he gets all the false 
spellings and determines also the bad spellers. 

The next word is then taken up and treated in 
a similar manner. 

It takes much time to describe this method, but 
it is really the most expeditious and thorough 
method of getting at the knowledge of a class, 
and makes a more durable impression, perhaps, of 
the correct spelling and of the evil of bad spelling 
than any other method that has ever been devised 
for secondary scholars. 

50 

ANOTHER METHOD WITH SLATES. 

Let the teacher write one or more sentences, 
whicb the scholars have studied, on the black- 
board, with m.any of the words misspelled, involv- 
ing sucli errors as the class would be most likely 
to fall into. 

The scholars sitting at their desks are required 
to copy the matter on the black-board, and to cor- 
rect the errors in spelling and capitals. The 
teacher afterward?^ examines their slates or papers, 
and grades them according to the accuracy, of 
want of it. 



ORTHOGRAPHY TO ADVANCED CLASSES. 



51 

1. Criticism of Reports Written on the 
Black-board. — The criticism of spelling comes 
next in order after the criticism of pronunciation. 
It is done by the class in the usual way by raising 
the hand at the instance of the teacher. 

Ilhisiratioii. — A scholar in an advanced class in 
Grammar has had the subject of the noun assigned 
to him, on which to give a report before the class. 
Having had a day for preparation, he writes out 
the classification of his subject on the black-board 
from memory^ without referring to notes or book. 
He then gives, in the order of his classification, 
all necessary explanations, definitions, and illus- 
trations of the subject, orally. When the pupil 
has gone through with his report, the teacher calls 
on the class for criticisms ; first, in pronunciation; 
second, in spelling; and so proceeds with the other 
items till the subject is thoroughly sifted. 

52 

2. Criticism of Compositions. — The teacher 
notes words misspelled in compositions, by draw- 
in» a lead mark under them. The scholar is re- 
quired to go to his dictionary and obtain the j \ 
correct spelling of these words, and to make aree 

(85) 



-^<-» TEACHING HIGHER CLASSES. 

ord of them in the two forms in a blank book, 
which he keeps for this purpose, called The 8pel- 
ing- Book. Every advanced scholar, who is not 
an accurate speller, should have such a book. 

These spelling books are arranged with two 
columns on each page, one headed with the name 
of the pupil, the other with the name of the au- 
thor of the Dictionary which he consults. In the 
column under his own name, he writes his bad 
spelling. In the other column, he writes the cor- 
rect spelling according to his authority. 

Scarcely will a scholar fall into a second blunder 
with regard to the spelling of a word, after having 
made such a record of his error. 

Teachers must, of course, have a regular and 
definite time for examining these spelling books, 
or they will soon fall into neglect. Without them, 
the criticisms on bad spelling in compositions 
will not amount to much. 



ADVANCED METHODS OF TEACHING. 



53 

TEACHING ORTHOGRAPHY BY CHARTS. 

The methods of using the charts are explained 
in articles 21 to 28. 

These' charts can be copied in an enlarged form 
by the teacher, or by scholars, on to one or more 
large sheets of printing paper, with a crayon. 
Charts of orthography are sold frequently for two 
dollars. Such a chart would cost the teacher not 
over a half dime, including paper and crayon, and 
will serve as good a purpose as the most expensive. 
[f scholars are permitted to make such charts, 
they have the advantage of learning them by the 
process, and of cultivating their taste in drawing 
and writing. 

54 

TEACHING ORTHOGRAPHY BY DERIVATIVES. 

It is an excellent practice to give spelling les- 
ions in the derivatives. Let the teacher propose 
two or three roots for a lesson : as, press^ (ic.t^ etc. 
The scholars, at the recitation, are required to 
urite as many derivatives as they have been able 
to obtain ; either on their slates, or on the black- 
board. They should, of course, be provided with 
dictionaries in the preparation of such a lesson. 
They can also make use of tables of prefixes and 



I 



j 



88 A^D^^ANCED TEACHINU. 

suffixes. Tl.e^ will also bring into use the si-EC- 
lAL RULES for spelling derivatives. 

The definitions of the derivatives should be re- 
quired as a part of the exercise. Many teachers 
make use of Mc Elligott's or Town's analysis. 
The exercise can be made very profitable without 
them, with the use of a dictionary and the tables 
of prefixes and suffixes defined. 

These tables can be copied from Mc Elligott 
on to large sheets of paper and into the "spelling 
books" of the pupils, as described in article 52. 

55 

Examples in formation of derivatives, with the 
rules for spelling, according to Goold Brown. 

WITH SUFFIXES. 

Act. a primitive word, signifying to do or to 
make. 

Actor. The person who acts. 

Actress. The female who acts. 

Action. The result or process of acting. 

Acts. Does act. 

Actest. Dost act. 

AcTETH. Does act. 

Acted. Did act. 

Acting. Continuing to act. 

Actionable. Admitting of an action. 

Actionably. By admitting an action. 

AcTioNARY'. 1 A person who has a share in an 

Actionist. j action. 

Active. Inclined to act. 



I r 



\ 
■ — . I 



«PE1,LING. 80 



Activity. ) Rule VI. | | The state or qual 

AcTivENEss. I Rule VII. j I ity of being active. 

Actively. Rule VII. In an active manner. 

Actual. Real in actins; or bein"-. 

Actuality. ] ,p, , . o i • , , 

V ihe state oi beini^r actual. 
Actualness. ) 

Actually. In an actua' nurnner. 

.Actuate. To cause to act. 

WITH PREFIXES AND SL'FFIXES. 

CoACT. To act together with force. 
CoACTiox. The process of coacting. 
Coactive. Inclining to coact. 
Counteract. To act against. 
Counteraction. The process of acting against 
Enact. To act in makins: a law. 
Enactment. The process or result of enactino;. 
In.4Cti\e. Without action. 
Inaction. An inactive state. 
Inactively^ Rule VI L In an inactive man- 
lier. 
Inactivity. Rule VI. An inactive state. 
Exact. — TV6. To act in forciniz; out of. 
Exacting. Continuing to exact. 
Kxaction. The process or result of exacting. 
KxACTOR. The pel son who exacts. 
Exact. — Adjective. Acting from rule. xVccurato, 
Exactly. In an exact aianner. 

Exactness. ) rr, . . c u • 
-, > Ihe state 01 being exact. 

I Exactitude. ) 

( React. To act again. To act back. 

Reacting. Continuing to react. 

Reaction. The process of reacting. 
8 



... / 



90 ADVANCED TEACHING. 

Reactive. Inclining to react. 
Reactively. Rule VII. In a reactive manner 
SuBACTioN. The process of acting to place 
under. 

56 

Pel. An inseparable radical word, si2;nifyino 
to drive or force. From Fdlo, Pulsus. With the 
only suffix — 

Pulsion. The act of drivins:. 

With prefixes and suffixes — 

Compel. Compelled, Rule III. Compelling, 
Rule III. Compulsion. Compulsive. Compul- 
sively, Rule VII. Compulsiveness, Rule VII. 
Compulsory, etc. 

From the root Press^ nearly two hundred deriv- 
atives can be obtained. From the inseparable 
root Gress, a long list can be formed. 

These two examples, Act and Pel, will be suffi- 
cient to illustrate the method of spelling by the 
use of prefixes and suffixes in forming derivatives 
from separable and inseparable primitives. 

58 

DRILLING ON THE SPECIAL RULES FOR SPELLING. 

The class should be required to memorize these 
as they are given in the irrammar used, with the 
exceptions and remarks. They should so memor- 
ize them, that they can give them as they are called 
for by the teacher promiscuously. They should 
then be required to write, or spell orally, words as 



SPELLING. 91 

thoy are dictated, or pronounced from the exam- 
ples contained in the grammar, under each rule, 
in order, until every scholar shows that he is able 
to apply the rules correctly. 

Sentences may then be dictated for writing, con- 
taining derivative words coming under the rules 
promiscuously. 

Sentences may be written on the board by the 
teacher in which these rules are violated. The 
scholars are expected to rewrite the sentences on 
slates or paper, witii references by number to the 
rules which were violated. 

This course should be pursued day after day, 
for weeks, until the scholars have formed the habit 
of noticing the application of these rules in spel- 
ling. 

We find that the larger part of misspelling in 
the compositions of advanced scholars, is in viola- 
tion of these rules, until they have been thor 
oughly drilled in them. 



OETHOGRAPHIC PARSING. 



EXERCISES IN ORTIIOORAI'HIC PARSING. 

The following lists of words are selected with the design ( f 
bringing in as large a variety of combinations both of syllabi s 
and letters as possible. It is presumed that the teacher, by care- 
fully eximining the methods by vvhich these words and the 
letters and Sdunds of which the}' are cumposed, are disposed of, 
under the FouM OK Orthograpihc Parsixo, given on page 62, 
will be able to parse any words, letters or sounds in the language. 

List of words analyzed : — 

Pin, Called, Thrcrugh, Ewe, Manlike, Inkstand, Condition. 

List of words whose letters and sounds are analyzed : — 

St.'und, Chaise. Xenophon, Rough, Lough, Phthisic, Motion, Filial. 

List of words parsed orthographicaily in full : — 

Impossibility. 

In commencing to teach Orthographic Parsing, it is well to 
divide the subject, and, at first, drill the class on words, includ- 
ing spelling, afterward upon letters and sounds, and finally c im 
bine the two. 

DRILL OX WORDS INCLUDIXG SPELLING. 

/*^/i is a simple, primitive, monosyllable, spelled orthographi- 
oally (naming the letters) p, i, n, and phonetically (enunciating 
the sounds) p, i, n. 

Called is a simple, derivative monosyllable, except in poetry, 
where it is sometimes a dissyllable, accented on the first. As a 
derivative, its base is call, modified by the simple suffix, ed, sig- 
nifying did. The signification of called is, did name, summons, 
invito, &c. Spelled orthographicaily, c, a, ll,e, d, phonetically, 
k, p>, 1, d. 

Tkrovgh is a simple, primitive monosyllable. Spelled, ortho- 
graphicallj', t, h, r, o, a, g, h ; phonetically, t,r, co. 

Ewe is a simple, primitive monosyllable. Spelled, orthograph- 
■'callv, e, w, e, phonetically, y,ix. 

Manlihe is a compound, primitive dissyllable, accented (slight- 
ly ) on the first. Spelled, orthographicaily, m. a, n, 1, i, k. e. pho- 
netically, m,a. n,l, j, k. Th-^ base of the word is man : which is 
modified by the word like, signifying resembling in mannf-, or 
appearance. The signification of the wmd is. rcsombling a man. 
^ Inkstand is a compound, primitive dissyllabl', accented on the 
first. Spelled, orthographicaily, i, n, k, s, t, a. n,d. phonetically, 
i, ij, k, s,t, a, n,d. The base of the word U stand, modified bv 

(92) 



I UUTHOCRAPIUC l-ARSING. 1)8 

I 

the worJ i,~:k, signifying (^hero,) a fluid for writing. The word 
signifies a vessel for holding tlie fluid. 

Condition is a sim[jle, primitive trisyllable, accented on the 
second ; spelled, orthographiculiy, c, o, n,d, i, t, i,o, n, phonetically 
k, 0, n, d, i, ;, o, n. 



DRILL ON LETTERS AND SOUNDS. 

Sound. S is a consonant, antecedent to the base of the sylla- 
ble, ou, and represents its own proper sound, s ; (enunciate, the 
inund,) which is an aspirate, obstructed at the gums by a partial 
contact of the organs: producing a dental and a continuiut. 

Ou, the base of the syllable, is a diphthong, representing its 
own proper sound, 'S ; {etiunciate.,) which is an open, compound 
voaal, modified (in the commencement of the sound,) at the soft 
pilate, and at the conclusion at the lips. 

N is a consonant, and the immediate consequent of the ba-e of 
the syllable, representing its own proper sound, n; {enunciate,) 
which is a subvocal, obstructed at the hani palate by a contact 
made perfect there, but with an opening of the nasal cavities, 
through which there is an escape of air externally, and, hence, 
obstructed by a partial contact of the organs; producing a pala- 
tal, a continuant, and a nasal. 

D is a consonant, and the remote consequent of the base of 
the syllable, representing its own proper sound, d ; {enunciate,} 
which is a subvocal, obstructed at the teith or gums, (at tbe 
teeth by some, and at the gums by others,) by :; perfect contact 
of the organs, producing an abrupt, and a dental. 

Chaiae. Ch is a consonant digraph, the antecedent of the base 
of the syllable, ai, final e, and represents thj s lund of sh, J; 
{enunciate,) which is an aspirate, obstructed at the hard palate, 
by a pirtial contact of the organs; producing a palatal and a 
continuant. 

Ai — e, the base of the syllable, is a disjiiined trigraph, repre- 
senting the h)ng sound of a, a; {enunciate,) which is a long, 
Biiople vocal, modified at the hard palate, 

S is a consonant, having its position between the parts of the 
disjoined trigraph, which forms the base of the syllable, and rep- 
resents the sound of z, z ; {enunciate,) which is a subvocal. f)b- 
structed at the gums by a partial contact of the organs; produc- 
ing a dental and a continuant. 

Xenophon. X is a consonant, antecedent to the base of the 
first syllable, e. and represents the sound of z, z: {envnciate, } 
which is a subvocal, obstructed at the gams, by a partial contact 
of the organs ; producing a dental and a continuant. 

E. the base of the first syllable, is a vowel, representing the 
short sound of e, e ; {enunciate,) which is a short, simple vocal, 
modified at the hard palate. 

N is a con>onant, the consequent of the b:ise of the f:rst sylla- 
ble, and represents its own proper sound, n ; {enunciate.) which 
is a subvocal, obstructed at tlie hard i)alate by a partial contact 
of the organs; producing a palatal, a continuant, and a nasal. 

0, the base of the second .-yllable, is a vowel, representing its 



i^t ORTlKfUUAPHIC PAUSING. 

ovfn \(mg souT.i], o; [enunciate,) which i:s a long, simple vocal 
modified at the lips. 

Fh is a consonant digraph, antecedent to the base of the third 
syllable, o, and represents the sound of f, f : (enunciate,'' which 
is an aspirate, obstructed at the lips by a partial contact of the 
organs, producing a labial and a continuant. 

0, the base of the third syllable, is a vowel, representing its 
own short sound, o; (enunciate, ) which is a short, simple vocal, 
modified at the short palate. 

N is a Consonant, the consequent of the base of the third sylla- 
ble, and represents its own proper sound, n; (enunciate,) which 
is a subvocal, and is obstructed at the hard palate, by a partial 
contact of the organs; producing a palatal, a continuant, and a 
na-<a!. 

Rough. R is a consonant and is antecedent to the base of the 
syllable, ou: representing its own proper sound, r; (enunciate,) 
which is a subvocal, obstructed at the hard palate, by a partial 
coiitact of the organs, producing a palatal, a continuant and a 
liquid. 

Ou, the base of the syllable, is a conjoined vowel digraph, rep- 
resi'Hting the short sound of u, u ; (enunciate,) which is a short, 
simple vocal, modified at the hard palate. 

Gh is a Consonant digraph, and the consequent of the base of 
the syllible, representing the sound of f , f ; (enunciate,) which 
is an aspirate, obstructed at the lips by a partial contact of the 
organs : producing a labial and a continuant. 

Lnt((jh. L is a consonant, and th3 antecedent of the b ise ol 
the syllable, ou ; representing its own proper sound, 1 ; (enunci- 
ate,) which is a subvocal, obstructed at the hard pilate, by a 
partial contact of the organs, producing a palatal, a continuant 
and a liquid. 

Ou, the base of the .syllable, is a vowel digraph, representing 
the sound of short o, o; (enunciate,) which is a short, simple 
vocal, modified at the soft palate. 

Gh is a consonant digrap!], and the conse.|uent of the base of 
the syllable, representing the sound of k, k; (enunciate,) which 
is an aspirate, obstructed at the soft palate, by a perfect contact 
of the organs : producing a guttural and an abrupt. 

Phthisic. Ph are two aphthongs and remote antecedents of 
the base of the first syllable, i, and are used to modify th^ repre- 
sentative character of the digraph th, and to determine the sig- 
nification of the word. 

Th is a consonant digraph, and the immediate a jtecedent of 
i. the bnse of the first syllable, representing the .sound of t, t: 
(enunciate,) which is an aspirate, obstructed at the teeth or 
gums, by a perfect contact of the organs, producing an abrupt 
and a dental. 

1, the bnse of the first syllable, is a vowel representing its own 
h-hort sound, i ; {^enunciate,) which is a short, simple vocal, modi- 
fied at the teeth. 

S is a consonant, the consequent of the base of the syliablo 
and represents the sound of z. z : (enunciate,) which is a subvo- 
ral, obstructed at the gum^, by a partial contast of the organs , 
producing a dental and a continuant. 



-J 



OiirHOURAriiic parsing. 1)5 

1, the base of the second syllable, is a vowel^ represenring its 
■jwn short sounJ. i; [enunciate,) which is a short, simple vocal, 
modified at the teeth. 

C is a consonant, and the consequent of the base of the sylla- 
ble ; representing ihe sound of k, k ; {enunciate,) which is an 
aspirate, obstructed at the soft palate, by a perfect contact of the 
organs : producing a guttural and an abrupt. 

Miitiiiii. M is a consonant, and the antecedent of o, the base 
of the fir.-<t syllable; representing its own proper sound, m 
(enunciate,) which is a .subvocal, obstructed at the lips, bya par- 
tial contact of the organs: producing a labial, a continuant, and 
a nasal. 

0, the base of tlie first syllable, is a vowel, representing it^ 
own long sound, o ; {envn^-iate,) which is a long, simple vocal, 
modified at the lips. 

Ti is a combined digraph, and the antecedent of o, the base of 
the second syllable ; representing the sound of sh, J ; {entinciate, < 
which is an aspirate, obstructed at the hard palate, by a partial 
contact of the organs ; producing a palatal and a continuant. 

0, the base of the second syllable, is a vowel, representing 
the sound of short u, u; {enur,ciate,) which is a sh^rt, sim >'-■' 
Vocal, modified at the hard palate. 

N is a consonant, and the consequent of the base of the sylla 
ble, representing its own proper sound, n ; {enunciate,^ which a 
a subvocal, obstructed at the hard palate, by a partial contact 
of the organs; producing a palatal, a continuant, and a nasal. 

Filial. F is a consonant, and the antecedent of the base o" 
the first syllable, representing its own proper sound, f; {tna.. 
date,) which is an aspirate, obstructed at the lips by a partia 
i:ontact of the organs ; producing a labial and a continuant. 

J, the base of the first syllable, is a vowel, representing its own 
short sound, i; {enunciate,) which is a short, simple vocal. 

L is a consonant, and the coisequent of the base of the first 
syllable ; representing its own } roper sound, 1 ; {enunciate, ) which 
is a subvocal, obstructed at tl e hard palate by a partial contact 
of the organs; producing a palatal, a continuant, and a liquid. 

1 is a consonant, and the antecedent of the base of the second 
syllable, representing the .sound of y, y ; {enunciate,) which is a 
vocal and a coalescent, modified nt the teeth. 

A, the base of the second syllable, is a vowel, representing its 
own short sound, a; {enuticiate,) which is a short, simple vocal. 

L is a consonant, and the consequent of the base of the second 
syllable, representing its own proper sound, I; {enunciate,) which 
is a subvocal, obstructed at the hard palate, by a partial (•ontact 
of the organs; producing a palatal, a continuant, and a liquid. 



DRILL IN FULL ORTHOGRAPHIC PARSING. 

irrq>086ibility is a simple, derivative polysyllable, accented on 
ihe fourth and second syllables. Possible, the base of the word, 
is modified by the prefix im, signifying not, and the suffix ity 
signifying the state or condition. Thu word signifies, "that 
which can not be." 



9b" ORTHOGRAPHIC PARSING. 

It is spelled, orthograpbicxll.y,_ i, m, p, o, ?, s, i, b, i, 1, i, t,y, and 
phonetically, i, m, p, o, s, i, b, i,. 1, i, t, i. 

I is a vowel, the base of the first syllable, representing it> 
own short sound, i ; {enuiiciate,) which is a short, simple vocal. 

M is a consonant and the consequent of the base of the firs* 
syllable, representing its own sound, m ; {enunciate,) which is 3 
subvocal, obstructed at the lips by a partial contact of the organ«; 
producing a labial, a continuant and a nasal. 

P is a consonant, and the antecedent cf the base of the second 
syllable, representing its own sound, p; {enunciate,) which is at 
aspirate, obstructed at the lips by a perfect contact of the organt 
producing a labial and an abrupt. 

0, the base of the second syllable, is a vowel, representing ili 
own short sound, o; {enunciate,) which is a short, simple voca' 

S is a consonant, and the consequent of the base of the second 
syllable, representing its own propersound, s; { en u?/ date.) whiec. 
is an aspirate, obstructed at the gums, by a partial contact of th^ 
organs; producing a dental and a continuant. 

1, the base of the third syllable, is a vowel, representing ilF 
own short sound, i : {enunciate,) which is a short, simple vocal 

B is a consonant, and the antecedent of the base of the fourth 
syllable, representing its own propersound, b; {emfnciate,^ whicn 
is a subvocal, obstructed at the lips by a perfect contact of thf 
organs ; producing a labial and an abrupt. 

1, the base of the fourth syllable, is a vowel, representing \ '- 
own short sound, i ; {enunciate,) which is a short, simple vocal. 

L is a consonant, and the subsequent of the base of the fourth 
syllable, representing its own proper sound, 1 ; {enunciate,) whiou. 
is a subvocal, obstructed at the hard palate by a partial contact 
of the organs ; producing a palatal, a continuant and a liquid. 

I, the base of the fifth syllable, is a vowel, representing itp 
own short sound, i ; {enunciate,) which is a short, simple vo.^il. 
modified at the teeth. 

T is a consonant and the antecedent of the base of the sixth 
syllable; representing its own proper sound, t ; {enunciate^) which 
is an aspirate, obstructed at the teeth or gums, by a perfect con 
tact of the organs ; producing a dental and an abrupt. 

Y, the base of the sixth syllable, is a vowel, representing the 
short sound of i, i ; {enundaU,) which is a short, simple vooa' 
modified at the teeth. 



PAHT HI. 
GRAMMAR. 
METHODS OF TEACHING ORTHOGENY, 
SYNTAX, AND ANALYSIS. 



\ 

J 



n 




( 



L 



INTRODUCTION. 

PROPER AGE FOR COMMENCING THE STUDY OP 
GRAMMAR. 

There is no subject of school study about which 
there is a greater disparity of opinion prevailing 
among teachers than that of the age at which chil- 
dren may commence the study of Grammar. 

Some teachers would have children commence 
Grammar as the first study in books after they 
have learned to read well, or even before ; others of 
our best educators would defer it till the faculties 
of the mind are all measurably developed; a third 
class would not have Grammar studied at all, as a 
distinct science. J conceive that, by an adapta ) 

lion of which the subject is susceptible, children 
may commence Grammar as soon as they can read 
fluently and intelligibly. Geography may be in- 
troduced before children can read fluently, as a 
means of securing study in reading lessons, and of 
training the hand and eye in drawing maps. I 
should, therefore, introduce Geography at this 
point, in this volume, were it not for breaking in 
upon a systematic arrangement of the branches. 

Object lessons in common things, and Natural , I 
History; also experiments in Chemistry and Natu- i j 

(99) i j 



100 GRAMMAR. 

ral Philosophy, may well precede the study of 
Grammar also. 

^ ORAL INSTRUCTION BEFORE THE BOOK. 

No lesson should be required of a young pupil in 
the text-book, till he has had a preliminary drill ; 
and the teacher is satisfied that he comprehends 
the subject so far as his lesson in the text-book 
extends. 

Should the teacher fail in making the class, or 
any member of a class, understand any particular 
part of the subject, by the preliminary drill, it 
would be worse than in vain to require such a class, 
or individual, to memorize it from the text-book. 
Such a pupil or class must lay aside that subject 
for awhile, and take up some other more simple ; 
)r, lay aside the study of Grrammar till the mind 
is more matured. 

THE METHODS OF PRELIMINARY DRILi^. 

The main object of the following pages, given to 
PRIMARY TEACHING, IS to illustrate and exemplify 
the method of preliminary drill, preparatory to 
lessons to be memorized from the text-book. 

A similar course has been pursued with numer- 
ous classes in the Model Department of the Normal 
School, and Grammar has never failed to be a treat 
for the children. 

THE ORDER OF LESSONS. 

The order pursued in the following pages, in 
taking up the different subjects for lessons, is that 
of simplicity ; commencing with t\ 2 most simple 



.-1 



INTRODUCTION. 101 

And obvious of subjects, viz : the noun, and pro- 
ceeding with its modifications and classes, as the 
child can bear them, and so advancing to other 
parts of speech and their modifications and classes, 
till the whole ground shall have been passed over 
[n its j)l(iin€St form. All exceptions, idioms, and 
irregularities, save such as are obviously violations 
of rules, are studiously avoided in this method of 
primary teaching, as tending to confuse the mind 
by too great a degree of complexity and obscurity. 

METHOD OF INTRODUCING RULES. 

No rule should be introduced till the necessity 
for it is understood bv the class. There is. then, 
no diificulty in then memorizing it even in the 
oral drill. Children wiix thus obtain the great 
fundamental principles of construction, of syntax, 
while they are learning to distinguish the parts of 
speech, their classes and modifications. 

WRITING EXERCISES. 

There are many advantages in the plan of writ- 
ten exercises proposed in parsing; some of which 
are: 1st. It secures study in the preparation of a 
parsing lesson, which otherwise might be evaded 
under various pretexts. 2d. It affords a means of 
teaching spelling, as explained in article 52, pagf 
85. 3d. Rapid improvement in penmanship car 
be secured by close attention to this matter on the 
part of the teacher. 4th, It paves the way tc 
composition, by the scholars' taking a part of the 
dijfficulties, before entering upon them iv combina- 



102 GRAMMAR. 

>:ion, 5th. It effects the more enual advanceDient 

1 

of a class, by securing more equal amounts of ap- 
plication outside of the recitation. 

Remark. — The ordinary writing book -may be 
used for this exercise, and the time otherwise given 
to writing from copies. 

GENERAL PLAN OF CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 

The method of conducting a recitation in Gram- 
mar, as explained in the subsequent pages, illus- 
trates the general metliod of conducting recitations 
in all branches. It a-ssumes, that the class is an 
organized assembly, with the teacher for Chairman. 
No scholar has a right to the floor (using parlia- 
mentary language) till he is recognized by the 
teacher. The raisino- of the hand signifies, that 
he wishes to obtain the floor, but does not gi*^e 
him a right to it without the assent of the Chair- 
man. The teacher should be particularly watch- 
ful on this point; otherwise scholars conceive, 
that whenever they raise the hand they may speak. 
Thus the obiect of raisinsi; the hand is defeated, 
and disorder is the result, 

MUTUAL CRITICISM OF SCHOLARS. 

Scholars are required, in the recitations, to criti- 
cise each other. Without special care, on the part 
of the teacher, he will deprive the scholars of this 
privilege by doing too much of it himself. Schol- 
ars will learn vastly more by criticising, than by 
being criticised. " It is more blessed to give than 
receive." 



r 



INTRODUCTION. 103 

They should also be ei)coura2,cd to criticise each 
jther out ot'schuol hours — of course, in a kindlj 
manner. 

METHOD OF USING PART III. 

For Primary chisses in Grammar, it is not sup- 
posed that the teacher consulting this work will 
bo irovcrned mechanically by my divisions of the 
..reneral subject into Licssoss, or that he will follow 
•uplicitly uiy arr.inuemcnt of the j)arts of vSpeech, 
!ii(l tiieir (rlasses and modifications, in his Stefs. 
With the exception of the adjective and the parti- 
cles, which for want of room are not provided for, 
I conceive the arrangement adopted the best, 
though other teachers may prefer to follow the 
arranuement of their text-books. 

The main object in view in the preparation of 
these primary lessons will be to exhibit, as clearly 
as possible, the combination of oral instruction 
with me:ni>i-iter lessons from text-books; and it i? 
believed that if a teacher will consult these suc- 
cessive Lf.ssons and Steps in his own preparation 
for the successive recitations and exercises, he will 
obtain some hints which may serve as guide boards 
or beacon lights in his course. 

The methods of using the Outlines and Defini- 
tions, etc., under the head of Advanced Teaching, 
will appear sufficiently in connection with them. 

6* 



METHOD OF TEACHING GRAMMAR TO 
PRIMARY CLASSES. 

1 

PRELIMINARY REMARKS AND EXPLANATIONS, 

The class should be able to read fluently aud 
intelligently. They should be provided with 
books, grammars of some kind, and all of the same 
kind. It is not necessary nor desirable that they 
should have primary grammars. The larger and 
fuller grammar has to be purchased, after the 
primary has been used one session. 

Most Normal Schools, throughout the country, 
now make use of either Brown's or Clark's Gram- 
mars as text books. My references will be made 
chiefly to Clark's Grammar, revised edition. 

2. 

LESSON I. 

First Step — Nouns. Let the teacher define a 
Noun in the simplest possible manner, i. e., as a 
name, and illustrate the definition by examples, 
thus : 

Teacher. A noun is a name. Every noun is a 
name, and every name is a noun. Your names 
are nouns, and my name is a noun. Can you 
think of any other nouns? 
(104) 



r 



PRIMAttY TEACHING. 105 

The scliolars raise their hands. 

l^cnc he r sajs to one — ^' John, you may mention 
some noun." 

John mentions some name, as '-house," '-stone," 
" boy." 

Teacher. Why is house a noun, John? 

John. Because it is a name. 

So the teacher should proceed with every mem- 
ber of the class, until all can not only give nouns, 
but can define them correctly. 

o 
O. 

Second Step — Nouns — Immaterial Objects. 
As scholars will in the first place select the names 
of material substances, the teacher will secondly 
bring to their notice the names of immaterial sub- 
stances and abstract qualities, thus: 

Teacher. Is mind a noun? As many as think 
it is may raise the band. 

Several do not raise their hands, perhaps; amone; 
whom is Samuel. 

Treacher. Samuel, why is n't mind a noun? 

Samuel. I never saw a mind. 

Teacher. But then you have a mind, I suppose, 
or are you all body and clothes? There are many 
things which you cannot see, which still must have 
names, as we have to talk about them. Did you, 
any of you, ever see the wind? or did you ever see 
a love or a friendship? Yet you do n't doubt that 
you possess and enjoy these things. Each one of 
the class may give such a noun. 

The teacher will then call on the pupils individ- 
ually by name, when such nouns as sound, health, 



106 GRAMMAR. 

goodhess. breath, life, death, weight, lightness, 
smell, etc., may be brought out by the class; possi- 
bly some adjective, as new, or soft, or sweet, by 
Jane. 

Teacher. Jane, why is sweet a noun? Did 
you ever see a sweet? 

Jane. No, sir ; but I have tasted of a sweet 
apple. 

Teacher. True, you have tasted of an apple, 
and the apple was sweet. But what sort of a thing 
is the sweet without the apple? Now. how many 
of the class can tell me the name of that quality 
of the apple which makes it taste sweet? 

Hands are raised. 

Teacher. Sarah. 

Sarah. Sugar. 

Teacher. Sugar is a substance, not a quality. 

Jamea. Juice. 

Teacher. Juice is also a substance, not a qual- 
ity. If I were speaking of the quality which 
makes the apple sweet, I should not call it the 
sweet of the apple. What would T call it? 

All hands come up, and eyes glisten. 

Teacher. Mary. 

Mary. Sweetness. 

Teacher. Yes, that is the name of the quality. 
Can you give me any other quality of apples? 
Fiach scholar may think of some quality of an 
apple and give it, when called on. James, what 
quality do you think of? 

James. Hardness. 
Teacher. Susan. 



\ 1 
( I 



PRIMARY TEACIIINQ. 107 

Susan. Softness. 

The teacher should pursue this course, till the 
class are familiar with the names of qualities taken 
abstractly. 

4. 

Third Step. Drill in the Grammah. Direct 
the scholars to turn to page 148 of Clark's (Tram 
mar, Sentence I. 

Teacher. You may tell me all the nouns you 
see in the second line : " A large ship traversino; 
the ocean by the force of the wind." 

James. Ship — ocean — wind. 

Teacher. Why are these words nouns? 

James. Because they are names. 

Teacher. Are there no other names in that line? 

James, perhaps, hesitates. 

Teacher. Class. [Several hands rise.] 

Remark. It will be noticed that when the 
teacher uses the word "Class," that no pupil 
speaks ; but all who are able to respond raise 
their hands. The teacher then calls on some one. 
to give the answer. 

Teacher. Mary, you may give me the other 
nouns in that line. 

Mary. Large, and force. 

Teacher. Why is force a noun, Mary'i 

Mary. It is the name of something. 

Teacher. Very well. Why is large a noun? 

Mary. It is a name. 

Teacher. Name of what? Did you ever see a 
large? 



108 GRAMMAR. 

Mary. I never saw a force either. 

Teacher. What property of the wind drives thp. 
ship? Is it not the power of the wind? What 
other name is there for power? Class. [Hands' 
rise.] Susan. 

Susan. Force. 

Teacher. Is not force then the name of that 
which drives the ship? Could the wind drive the 
ship, if it had no force? Let us now see about 
large. Is large the name of anything, Mary? 

Mary. Yes, sir; a large house is a name. 

Teacher. House is a name of that in which 
people live ; but what sort of a thing is a large? 
How many think large is the name of anything, 
now? 

In a similar way, each member of the class may 
be called on to give the nouns in a line. The 
teacher will select such lines from Clark's Gram- 
mar, or any other, as may be best adapted to the 
particular scholar with whom he is dealing. Chil- 
dren will most easily and certainly select the 
names of material objects. 

The lesson assigned for the scholar to learn from 
the book, is, in this case, nothing more than the 
definition of a noun. And the teacher will be 
careful in these primary exercises to require tha 
class to learn nothing from the book which he has 
Qot made plain, and pleasant, in the preliminary 
drill. 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 109 

5. 

LESSON II. 

First Step — Recitation of Lesson assigned. 

Teaclif^r. How many can define a noun? 

Hands rise ; and the teacher calls upon those 
who were the dullest in the previous exercise, to 
give the definition. Having thus satisfied himself 
as to the amount of study bestowed, he proceeds 
to another preliminary drill, on the modifications 
of nouns, taking them in the order of their sim- 
plicity, taking those modifications first, always, 
which are the most obvious to the child. 

6. 

Second Step — Number. Teacher. I will tel' 
you something more about nouns. They are sin- 
gular or plural. If a noun means one of that 
thing which it is the name of, it is singular ; if it 
means more than one it is plural. For instance, 
horse is a singular noun, because it means a single 
horse ; but horses is a plural noun, because it 
means more than one horse. 

Teacher. The class, all together. Is bird sin- 
gular or plural? 

The class answer in concert without raising* 
hands when the words "all together" are used. 

Teacher. Is birds singular or plural? 

Class. Plural. 

Teacher. How is it with boy? 

Class. Singular. 

Teacher. Give me the plural of b'^y. 

Class. Boys. 



liO GRAMMAR. 

TeacJtcr. Is girls singular or plural? 

Class. Plural. 

Teacher. Give mt the singular of girls. 

Class. Girl. 

Teacher. Very well; now the plural of fox. 

Class. Foxes. 

Teacher. Box. Cass. Boxes. Teacher. Ox 
Class. Oxes — oh no. oxen. 

Teacher. A'ery well ; try again. Mouse. Class. 
Mice. Teacher. Louse. Class. Lice. Teacher. 
Qouse. Class. Hice — no, no, houses. 

Teacher. You are right now. Again ; Moose. 

Class. Mooses. Teacher. Papoose. 

Class. Papooses. Teacher. Goose. Class. 
Gooses ; ha, ha, geese. 

7. 

Third Step — Gender. Teacher. Now, chil- 
dren, I wish to tell you about gender. The name 
of a male is a noun of the masculine gender. The 
name of a female is a noun of the feminine gender. 
For instance; boy is a noun of the masculine 
gender, girl is a noun of feminine gender. Floor 
is a noun of the neuter gender. 

Teacher. What gender is man? All together. 

Class. ^lasculine. 

Teacher. How many can tell me why man is 
I masculine? [Hands rise.] 

Teacher. Samuel. Samuel. It is the name of 
a man. Tacher. Jane. Ja?ie. It is the name 
of a female. 

Teacher. What gender is lady? [Hands rise.] 

Teacher. Mary. 3Ia?y. Feminine. 

I 



PRIMARY TEACUING. Ill 

Teacher. Vriiat gender is desk? [No hands 
rise.] What gender did I tell you those nouns 
were which were neither masculine nor feminine? 
[Hands rise.] Teacher . Sarah. Sarah. Neuter. 

Teacher. Very well. What gender is desk, 
then? [All hands up.] 

Teacher. All together. Clas>^. Neuter. 

8. 

Fourth Step — Parsing. The class are now 
prepared to commence the process of parsing. 
The teacher will lead the way by giving an ex- 
ample thus. 

Teacher. You may all look at the first noun 
in the first line of Sentence I. 148, of Clark's 
Grammar, and I will parse it for you. 

Science is a noun, singular number, neuter gen 
der. Do you think you can parse a word now? — 
[Some hands rise.] 

Teacher. Jane, you may parse mind, in the 
same line. 

Jane. Mind is a noun. 

Teacher. ^Yhat number? 

Jane. Singular. Teacher. What gender? 

Jane. Neuter. Teacher. Now, you may parse 
it again. Jane. Mind is a noun, singular num- 
ber, neuter gender. 

Teacher. Very well. You may all parse i'" in 
concert. 

Class. Mind is a noun, singular number, neu- 
ter gender. 

Teacher. Very well. Sarah, you may now 
parse ship. 



.,j 



112 GRAMMAR. 

Sarah, Sliip is a noun, neuter gender, singu 
hir number. 

Teacher. You may all parse ship. 

Class. 8hip is a noun, (m covfusion) singular 
number, neuter gender, neuter gender, singular 
number. 

Teacher. You may give the number before the 
gender. Take the noun, John, in the line: "I. 
John, saw these thingsJ' James, you may parse it. 

James. John is a noun. 

Teacher. Why? Jamc.'i. It is a name. 

Teacher. Go on. James. Singular number. 

Teacher. Why? James. It means only one. 

TeacJier. AVhat gender? James. Masculine. 

Teacher. Very well. You may all parse John. 

Class. John is a noun, singular number, mas 
culine gender. 

9. 

Fifth Step — Pkrson. Teaelier. I will now 
tell you something else. about nouns. If a noun 
is the name of the speaker or writer, it is in the 
first person. If it is the name of a person spoken 
to, it is in the second person ; and if it is the 
name of a person or thing spoken of, it is in the 
third person. For instance: John, in the sen- 
tence we have just had, is in the first person, be- 
cause John was the name of the writer. If I 
should say, "George, shut that door," George 
would be in the second person, because it would 
bo the name of the person spoken to. But door 
would be in J lie third person, because it is spokea 
of. 



PRIMARY TEACHING. IK-J 



What person is Daniel, in the expression used 
by the King: "0, Daniel! servant of the living 
God?" All together. 

Class. Second person. Teacher. Why? Qass. 
Daniel is spoken to. 

Teacher. Now, we will parse a few words. 1 
will parse John for you first. John is a noun, 
third person, singular number, masculine gender. 

You may follow the same order in parsing that 
I did in giving person, number and gender. 

Teacher. Eliza, you may parse Esther in the 
second sentence, in Lesson II. 

Eliza parses as directed, in this manner : Esther 
is a noun, third person, singular number, feminine 
gender. 

Teacher, You may all parse it in concert. 

The Class parse in concert. They can be kept 
together by the teacher's beating witli his hand, 
or pointer. 

It will be noticed, that no definitions are called 
for, while parsing, as is practiced by most teachers 
and recommended in most grammars, since the 
days of Kirkham. However, if the scholar is 
wrong, or hesitates, showing doubt or ignorance 
of any point, the teacher at once calls for the defi- 
nition necessary to set the scholar right. If the 
scholar parsing cannot give the required definition, 
j the teacher says, " Class:" when all who can give 
it raise their hands; and the teacher calls on the 
scholar most unlikely to give it. If he fails, then 
on another, and so on till the definition is correctly 
given. 



114 GRAMMAR. 

10. 

Sixth Step — Classes or JNouns. Teacher 
Kouns arc divided into two classes, for the purpose 
of showing us where to use capital letters. 

General names, or such as apply to many per- 
sons or things, are called common nouns; for the 
reason that they belong in common to many ob- 
jects. The noun man is common ; it belongs in 
common lo many persons. James Buchanan is 
called a proper noun; it belongs, properly, or pe- 
culiarly, to one person. I will give you several 
oommon nouns, and you may give proper names 
that belon"' to the same class of thincis. For in- 
stance: under the common noun, girl, we find the 
proper nouns, Susan, Mary, Eliza, etc. 

What proper noun comes under the common 
noun boy? 

Class raise their hands. 

Teacher. William. William. Samuel. 

This course may be pursued with each of the 
scholars, until they are all able to distinguish the 
classes of nouns. 

Then the teacher calls on them to parse ; giving 
the class of the noun first in order after the noun, 
then the modifications as before. 

The exercise is closed by assigning to the class, 
for a lesson to be learned from the book, the defi- 
nitions of the two classes of nouns, as well as the 
definitions of person, number, and gender. These 
definitions are pointed out in the grammar by the 
teacher; and some one of the duller scholars is 
asked to show, in his own book, what the lesson 



( i 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 115 

IB, in order that tlie teacher may be sure that the 
class 'inderstand what they are to learn for iim 
next recitation. 

11. 

LESSON III. 

First Step. The recitation of the lesson as- 
signed, and the grading of the scholars according 
to their merits, in the teacher's register. 

12. 

Second Step — Case. Verb. Teacher. Nouns 
have one more property, or modification ; that of 
case. In order that you may understand this prop- 
erty, I shall introduce you to another kind of 
word ; or, as the grammarians call it, another part 
of speech. A verb is a word that denotes action^ 
or being, or state of being. 

When I say, "The bird flies," the word flies de- 
notes the action of the bird, or tells what the bird 
does; hence, it is a verb. In the sentence, "Marj 
reads;" reads is a verb for a similar reason. In 
the sentence, " The stone lies on the ground," the 
word lies does not express action, but simply state 
of being. 

Now, you may give me the verbs in these sen- 
tences; all together: "The horse runs." 

Class. (In concert.) Runs. Teacher. Why? 

Class. It tells what the horse does. Teacher. 
Does it denote action or being? Class. Action. 

Teacher. " The boy chops wood." In this sen- 
tence, what is the verb, John? 

John. Chops. Teacher. Why? John. I\ 
denotes action. Teacher. Very well. 



il6 GRAMMAR. 

13. 

Tee Third Step — Drill in Verbs. Ihacker. 
You may nov; open your grammars to the G5Lh pago 
and find some of the verbs in Sentence I. 

James, in the first sentence, what is the verb, and 
why? 

James. Feels, because it denotes action. 

Teacher. Sarah, in the next sentence"? 

Sarah. Rose ; it denotes action. 

This course may be pursued till the class have 
all been reached, and can give the verbs in these 
simple sentences, and the reason for such words 
being verbs. It will be noticed, that op])€ar and 
seems are verbs, because they denote being, or state 
of being, 

14. 

Fourth Step — Subject and Object. Ttacher^ 
If I say, "The boy drives a team;" what is the 
subject of the remark, what is the principal thing 
talked about? Class raise their hands. 

Teacher. Susan. Susan. Boy. 

Teacher. Eight. The subject of a sentence is 
that word in a sentence about which the verb as- 
serts something. Now, the verb drives asserts an 
action of the subject, boy ; and the noun, boy, is 
in the condition of a subject. Grammars call this 
condition the ' nominative case," They might 
better call it the "subjective case," or condition. 
But, since nearly all grammars agree in this mat- 
ter, we will call it so too. 

Teacher. Let us take the same sentences again 
What objeiit does the boy drive? 



PRIMARY TEACIIiiNU. 117 

Class raise hands. 

Teacher. John, John. Team. Teacher. Ygh, 
Then team is in the condition of an object, and 
we v/111 say, that it is in the objective condition or 
?ase. 

We can now purse these nouns, boy, and team, 
in full. 

I will parse boy for you, but will first write the 
form by which I parse it, on the board. [The . 
teacher writes.] Speclesf Clasps? Person? Number? 
Gender? Case? Construction? Rule? Now, I will 
parse it by this form ; then, you may all parse it 
by the same form, in concert. The teacher using 
the pointer, as he proceeds, parses thus: Boy is a 
noun, common, third, singular, masculine, nomi- 
native, because it is subject of the verb, drives 
He then calls on the class to parse the same word, 
guiding them by pointing at the successive ques- 
tions in the form, on the board. The same course 
is pursued with team, the teacher giving, as its 
"construction," "being the object of the verb 
drives." 

The teacher assigns for the next lesson, those 
definitions which he has brought out and exempli- 
fied in this exercise. This lesson is to be studied 
and prepared for the next exercise. The defini- 
tions to be assigned, are these, viz: of the noan, 
common noun, proper noun; gender, masculine, 
feminine; person, first person, second person, third 
person; number, singular number, plural number 
case, nominative case, objective ease. 



118 CEAIIMAR. 

15. 

LESSON IV. 

First Step — Recitation. The m.-mnei af con- 
ducting this recitation is this : 

The scholars being seated on the recitation 
bench, the teacher calls one most likely to fail, bj 
name. He or she rises. The scholar rises for 
several reasons. 1st. He feels more responsibility 
in the recitation, when thus made more promi- 
nently the object of observation. 2d. The rest ol 
the class can hear what he says more plainly. 3d. 
Other scholars, who are sitting, cannot so easily 
prompt him without being heard by the teacher. 
The teacher then proposes one word for definition, 
not the first, necessarily ; perhaps the most diffi- 
cult. If the scholar fails in this, the teacher pro- 
poses it to the class, for the purpose of keeping 
their attention, by saying, "Class." All who are 
able to answer, raise their hands ; and the teacher 
calls upon those least likely to do so, to give the 
definition or answer the question. This course is 
pursued till every member of the class is reached 
and his merit or demerit ascertained and recorded 
in the class register. 

16. 

Second Step — Parsing. The teacher directs 
the class to turn to page 65 of Calrk's Grammar, 
or to any similar collection of sentences, in any 
other grammar. He writes out the /or?)! for pars- 
ing a nou7i on the board, as given before, in section 
14, page 117. Then some one of the more apt 
scholars is called on to parse Science in the sen' 



I I 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 119 



I 

/ 

Lencc, " kScience enlarges and strengthens t]i3 
mind," by the form — standing while he parses; 
the rest of the class signifying any error by rais- 
ing their hands; when the teacher calls on some 
one, so signifying, to correct the error, or the sup- 
posed error. A scholar having .parsed a word, is 
excused, and the class parse in concert; the teach- 
er keeping time for them by pointing in succession 
to the several questions in the fonn. 

I will parse the words Science and Mind, in tlie 
manner they should be parsed in this exercise. 
Science is a noun, common, third, singular, neuter, 
nominative, being the subject of strengthens and 
enlarges, according to the Rule, A noun or pro- 
noun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be 
in the nominative case. Mind is a noun, common, 
third, singular, neuter, objective, being the object 
of the verbs strengthens and enlarges, according 
to the Rule, The object of a transitive verb must 
be in the objective case. 

The teacher will be careful to give only such 
nouns to parse, as are subjects or objects of verbs; 
introducing or requiring nothing in the parsing 
exercise, which has not been fully understood by 
previous explanation and drill. If the book does 
not furnish a sufficient number of appropriate 
examples, sentences may be written on the black- 
board. 

In parsing, the words person, number, gender, 
and case, are omitted ; because they are given in 
the form on the blackboard, and because they are 
just as plainly signified, when omitted, a* when 



120 GHAMxMAR. 

expressed. No definitions are required, we repcat» 
when parsing, unless the pupil, in his parsing, 
makes an error or hesitates ; when he is corrected 
or prompted by the teacher's calling for the appro- 
priate definition ; the forgetting or neglecting of 
which was the cause of the pupil's error or hesi- 
tancy. 

The hour, or half hour, for the recitation, is 
thus occupied in parsing, by individuals, and by 
the class in concert, leaving only time enough tr 
assign another lesson. 

17. 

Third Step — Assigning a Lesson in Writing. 
The next lesson is the parsing of the words in 
v;riting, which have been parsed orally in the class. 
Teacher. Scholars, you will hand me, at the next 
recitation, a written parsing lesson. You may 
write, on paper, with ink, very neatly, and with 
correct spelling, the parsings of the same words 
which have been parsed in this recitation. Now, 
you will be careful to have paper, ink, and pens, 
all ready at the regular hour in which you study 
this lesson, and I will help you a little then, if 
necessary. I would like to have you fold your 
papers neatly, as merchants and lawyers fold their 
papers for filing, and write your name across one 
end, on the outside. The teacher will then show 
the manner of folding by taking a half-sheet and 
folding it before the class. He will write hi?? 
name, on the folded paper, as he wishes the schol- 
ars to write theirs 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 121 

18. 

LESSON V. 

FiRflT Sti:p — Criticising Written Exei:cise8 
The written exercises are collected by one of the 
scholars ; and the teacher reads one of them aloud 
for the class to criticise. They are directed to 
watch for errors and to raise their hands if they 
notice any. Should any hands rise, the teacher 
3alls on some one who raises his hands to mention 
the error and correct it. If he should fail, then 
the teacher calls on others, till the error is cor- 
rected. The pupil who made the error is required 
to give the definition or rule which he neglected or 
violated in making the error. The same course is 
pursued till this paper and the others are disposed 
of. The teacher will be careful to bestow any 
praise, that is deserved, for neatness in the execu- 
tion of the mechanical part of the exercise, and he 
will grade the pupils in his register according to 
their accuracy in parsing and spelling; and accord- 
ing to the neatness evinced in writing and fold- 
ing, and superscribing their own names on the 
papers. 

Time should be reserved for another drill in oral 
parsing, even though all the written exercises are 
not criticised before the class. They may be criti- 
cised by the teacher out of school hours, and the 
errors corrected with a lead pencil or red ink, on 
the paper, so that the scholar will understand them, 1 
and the paper returned to him at the next recita- ; 

*ion. I 

1 



122 GRAiJiJAR. 

19. 

Second Step — Drill in Orai, Paiisinq. This 

drill may consist of parsings of the same class of 
words as before, provided the class are found quite 
deficient in their written exercises ; and the same 
course may be pursued through several lessons 
until the majority of the class are able to parse the 
words assigned, according to their stage of ad- 
vancement, correctly. 

20. 

LESSON VI. 

First Step — Criticising Written Parsings. 

Second Step — Possessive Case. The possess- 
ive case may be introduced, and the declension of 
nouns; and, after being explained, the definition 
of the possessive case and other cases, also, the 
declensions of nouns may be assigned for study, in 
connection with some nouns to be parsed in writ- 
ing, which have not been parsed orally, and which 
are in the constructions already explained, viz : 
the subject of a verb, the object of a verb, the pos- 
sessive case, denoting possession, origin, design, 
etc. (See Clark's Grammar, pages 83 and 84.) 

21. 

LESSON VII. 

First Step — Recitation of definitior s of cases, 
and the declensions of nouns. 

Second Step — The Examination of the paper 
of one of the scholars, while the other scholars, 
having their papers in their hands, give theii 
agreement or disagreement with the paper read. 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 123 

Third Step —Introduction of the Pronoun. — 
Teacher. It' I should say : " Jane studies with all 
Jane's might?" how could you better express that 
idea? [Hands rise.] 

Teacher. Susan. Susan. "Jane studies with 
all her might," would sound better to me. 

Teacher. Right. What word do you use in- 
stead of Jane's? Class. [Hands rise.] 

Teacher. Mary. Mary. Her. Teacher. Then 
her is a pronoun, because a pronoun is a word used 
instead of a noun. Now, you may all open to page 
S09, and see if you can tell nie w'hich are the 
pronouns. How many of you see a pronoun 
in the sentence: "The evil which he feared !ias 
come upon him." [Hands rise.] Teacher. Henry. 
Henry. Which. Teacher. What does which 
stand in place of? Henry. Evils. Teacher. 
Right. Samuel, what pronoun in the same 
sentence? Samuel. He. Teacher. Why is he 
a pronoun? Samuel. Because it stands in the 
place of John. Teacher. Eight. Do any of 
you see another pronoun in the same sentence ? 
[Hands rise.] Teacher. Ellen. Ellen. Him. 
Teacher. What does him stand in place of? 
Eilen. Ellen. It stands in the place of he. 
Teacher. Right. 

The same course may be pursued till the major- 
ity of the class can distinguish pronouns. The 
next lesson assigned for study, will include the 
definition of the pronoun, and a new parsing les- 
son of nouns; the teacher being careful to assign 



I I 



124 GRAMMAR. 

no nouns in different constructions from those lie 
has alreadj exphiined. 

22. 

\ LESSON VIII. 

First Step — Kecitation of tlic definition of 
pronouns. 

Second Step — Classes and Cases oe Pronouns. 

Teacher. There are three chisscs of pronour.s. 
I -will endeavor to describe them, so that you can 
tell them apart. Let me have your attention very 
closely. 

A personal pronoun is one that always stands 
for the same grammatical person. 

A relative pronoun is one that may stand for 
any grammatical person, and connects clauses. 

An interrogative pronoun is one that is used for 
asking a question. 

The pronoun he always stands for the third 
person or some person spoken of. The pronoun I 
always stands for the speaker or for the first per- 
son. Thou, always stands for the second person. 
He, I and thou, are, therefore, personal pronouns. 
The pronoun who may stand for any one of the 
thiee persons; for the first person, second person, 
or third person. In the expression, "I, who teach," 
what person docs who stand for? Class. [Hands 
rise.] Teacher. Susan. Susan. First person. 
Teacher. In the expressions, " You, who study ;" 
'•Our Father which art in heaven," what person do 
( who and which stand for? [Hands rise.] John. 
I John. The third person. Teacher. What does 
i who stand for, John? Joh?i. It star Is for you, 

! 

I 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 125 

Teacher. Right. What does you stand for, when 
[ say, " You, who study?" Does it stand for the 
person spoken of, or the person spoken to? John. 
It stands for the person spoken to. Teacher. Then 
who stands for the person spoken to, for it stands 
for the same that you does. In the expression, 
"Thou who runnest," what person does who stand 
for? [Hands rise.] Teacher. Jane. Jane. Sec- 
ond person. Teacher. Very well. Then you see 
*that who does not always stand for the same gram- 
matical person, as the pronoun I does. 

In the question, " Who comes there?" who 
stands for the answer of the question, and for that 
reason is a pronoun. It is also used for asking 
that question, and is for that reason an interroga- 
tive pronoun. 

How many can tell the pronouns in the line, "1, 
who was present, know the particulars." [Hands 
ri<e.] Teacher. Julia. Julia. I and who are 
pronouns. Teacher. Yes. Now I will write those 
definitions that I gave you, of the different kinds 
of pronouns on the board, and you may copy them 
on to your papers and recite them at your next 
recitation. You may also learn the declensions of 
the personal pronouns, on page 89. 1 do not wish 
you to learn the definitions of the different classes 
of pronouns in the grammar; they will only per 
pi ex you. 

23. 

LESSON IX. 

First Step — Kf.citation of the Definitions 
given on the blackboard and copied the day pro- 



126 GRAMMAR. 

vious; also of the Declensions of personal pro* 
nouns. 

Second Step — Form of Parsing Pronouns. — 
This may be written on blackboard thus : Species^ 
Class? (^Sub-classf) Agreement? Person? Num- 
ber? Gender? Rule? Case? Construction? Rule? 

Teacher. I will now parse a pronoun for 
yoi) by the form. In the sentence, " When the 
Saxons subdued the Britons, they introduced 
their own language," they is a pronoun, per- 
sonal, and agi'ees with Saxons in the third, plu- 
ral, masculine, according to the rule, A pronoun 
must a^ree with its antecedent, or the noun or 
pronoun which it represents, in person, number, 
and gender. They is in the nominative case, be 
ing the subject of the verb introduced, according 
to the rule; A noun or pronoun, which is the sub- 
ject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case. 

Now, you may parse the same word in concert, 
as I point to the form 

The class then parse this word in concert. 
Their, in the same sentence, is parsed by some one 
of the pupils, following the form, and the teacher 
asking for definitions when the pupil errs or hesi- 
tates. Then the class parse the same word in con- 
cert, following the form as the teacher points to 
the several questions in it. 

This exercise is co i tinned with other pronouns, 
on the same page, till the time expires; when the 
teacher assigns the same pronouns for a parsing 
lesson in writinc:, for the next recitation. 



r.- 

PRIMARY TEACHING. 127 

24. 
LESSON X. 

First Step — Criticism of one of the written 
exercises, with the comparison of the other exer- 
cise by the scholars. The teacher then collects 
the papers, for criticism out of school hours. 

Second Step — Relative Pronouns. Teacher. 
I wish you to attend now more particularly to the 
relative pronouns. How many can give me the 
detinition of a relative pronoun? [Hands rise.] 
Ttachcr. Sarah. Scrah repeats the definition. 
If she fails or errs, some other pupil is called on 
for it. Then the class is called on to repeat it, in 
concert, several times, till all can give it correctly. 
Teacher. A relative pronoun is one used to intro- 
duce a sentence, which qualifies its own antecedent. 
Turn to page 91, and see who can tell n)e what 
sentences, who connects? [No hands rise.] Tocher. 
I will tell you; "The youth was applauded,*' is 
ojie sentence, and "Who was speaking," is another, 
since they both have verbs in them, as every sen- 
tence must have a verb in it. Now, try the next 
sentence, — What is said about he? Samuel. Sa- 
mnel. " Man whom you described." l^rarher. No. 
" We saw man," is one sentence ; what is the other? 
— Samuel. " Whom you described." Teacher. And 
what coimects the two sentences? Sumwl. Whom, 
1 guBss. Teacher. You guess right. Tlien what 
kind of a pronoun is whom? Class. [Hands rise.] 
7Wc/i£'?*. James. James. Relative. Teacher. Why? 
James It connects those sentences. Teacher. Very 
well. Who can tpll me the relative pronoun in 



128 GRAMMAR. 

the next sentence ? [No hands rise.] Teacher. 
" ^Fount the horse," is one sentence ; what other 
sentence is there included in it? [IlF.nds rise.] 
Teacher. Susan. Sffsan. " Which 1 have chosen." 
Teacher. Right, and what stands for horse and 
Connects the clauses? [Hands rise.] Teacher 
Mr.ry. Mary. Which. Teacher. Very well. Now 
Mary, \ on may parse which by the form. 

Mary parses which ; any corrections, signified by 
the class, or otherwise necessary, are made by the 
teacher, by calling on Mary for the appropriate 
definitions. The class then parse it in concert, till 
they all are able to harmonize. 

The parsing lesson now assigned for writing, is 
these same relative pronouns, which have been 
parsed by the class orally. 

25. 

LESSON XI. 

Second Step— The Verb — Tenses. Teacher, 
We will resume the study of the verb. How many 
can give me the definition of the verb. [Hands rise.] 
Teacher. Sarah. Sarah. A verb is a word used to 
express the act. being, or state of a person or thin<>-. 

Teacher. Right. The class may give the defi 
nition in concert. 

The class repeat the definition until all can give 
it correctly. 

The course to be pursued with the verb is simi- 
lar to that pursued with the noun, viz : taking the 
most obvious feature first, and others in order, as 
they become more complex. The distinction of 
( ^ _ 



^^ 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 12U 

tense appears to me the simplest and easiest modi- 
fication, in connection with the verb. 

Teacher. There are three kinds of time: pres- 
ent, past and future. All actions are performed 
in present time, or past time, or future time. Each 
kind of time has two tenses ; the first and second. 
The first tense of each kind is called the present, 
past, future. The second of each kind is called 
the prior prrsent, prior past, and prior future. 
I will give vou the form of these tenses with the 
verb learn: Present, I learn; Pant, I learned; Fu- 
ture, I shall or will learn. The class may give the 
forms in concert as I call for them. Teacher. Pres- 
ent. Class. I learn. Teacher. Past. Class. 1 
learned. Teacher. Future. Class. I shall or will 
learn. Teacher. I would like to have you give 
the same tenses of some other verbs. Take study, 
and go through with it in the same way. 

The class may all follow the teacher in inflecting 
the present tense, with the persons and numbers, 
giving them the proper pronouns. 

Teacher. You will be able to get the forms of 
the tenses more easily by means of these signs : 
now, being the sign or test of the present ; yester- 
day, the sign or test of the past; and, shall or icUl, 
the signs of the future. 

You will not find the signs, now and yesterday, 
often in connection with verbs, in books; but you 
can always apply them to their respective tenses 
and make sense. They are applied in this way: 
Present, I learn now; Past, T learned yesterday; 
Future, T shall or will learn. 



! 130 GRAMMAR. 

Now, you may give, in concert, the verb write 
in these three tenses, with the signs. I will beat 
time and you may give them. Class. Present. 1 
write now ; Past I wrote yesterday; Future^ I shall 
or will write. Teacher. Pretty well. You may 
give them again. 

The drill is continued with tenses in a variety 
of verbs, until all are able to give the tenses cor- 
rectly. If any scholar is slow and careless in the 
concert exercise, he is called on to give the tenses 
separately, till his attention is secured. 

26. 
Second Step — Prior Tenses. Teacher. The 
prior tenses have these signs. The prioi- present, 
hnve^ hadst, or has; prior past, had or hadst ; prior 
future, shall or will have ; I will apply them to 
the verb learn. Prior present, I have learned ; 
Prior past, \ had learned ; Prior fulvre, I shall 
or \vill learn. Now, you may give them as I call 
for them. 

Teacher, l^rior present. Class. I have learned. 
Teacher. Prior past. Class. I had learned. 
Teacher. Prior future. Class. 1 shall or will 
have learned. 

Teacher. Prior future. Class. I shall or will 
have learned. 

Teacher. Very well. Now take the verb write 
and give the names of the prior tenses and their 
forms as I beat time with the pointer. 

It may be well in any more difficult concert ex- 
ercise, in which many of the class hang behind ot 
fail of getting the exercise, to require the class to 

t__ ' — — ~ 

\_ _— — — 



( ! 



PFIMARY TEACHING. 131 

give each form twice. The laggards will then be 
able to catch the forms. 

Teacher. You may now give all the six tenses, 
with their signs, as I call for them, and you may 
all give each form twice. All together. l*reseut. 
Class. 1 learn now, 1 learn now. Teacher. Prior 
present. Class. I have learned, I have learned. 
Teacher. Past. Class. I learned yesterday, 1 
learned yesterday. Teacher. Prior past. Chtss. 
I had learned, I had learned. TeacJier. Future. 
Class. 1 shall or will learn, I shall or will learn. 
Teacher. Prior future. Class. I shall or will have 
learned, I shall or will have learned. 

Teacher. You may now copy these signs from 
the board as I write them, and they will be your 
lesson for the next recitation. [The form of writing 
them will be found in Sec. 58.] The teacher writes 
on the board : "Signs of the tenses." Indicative 
mood. Present^ (now.) Prior present^ have, hast, 
or has. Past^ (yesterday.) Prior past, had or 
hadst. Future, shall or will. Prior future, shall or 
will have. 

Yon may learn the names of the tenses, and their 
sijrns, for vonr ne.xt lesson, so that von can all write 
them on the black board, at the next recitation, with- 
out looking on your papers. You may also learn 
the definitions of these tenses as given on pasjes 1 15- 
116 of Clark's Grammar. 

27. 

LESSON XIT. 

First Step — Kecitation of definitions of tensesj 
and writing out the tenses, and their siccus on the 
t>oard ")r on slates. 



132 GRAMMAR. 

Second Step — Moods. Teacher. There are 
several different manners of expressing actions or 
states of being. These different manners gram- 
marians call moods. The indicative mood, that 
which you have been learning thus far, simply in- 
dicates a fact or asks a question, as, He learned. 
Did you study? The potential mood expresses 
power, possibility, liberty or necessity, and alway;3 
uses these auxiliary or helping verbs, may, can, or 
must; and might, could, would or should. I will 
give you the four tenses in this mood ; then you 
may see if you can give them in concert: Present. 
I may, can, or must learn ; Prior prese)it^ 1 may, 
can, or must have learned ; Pasl^ i might, could, 
would, or should learn ; Prior j;as^, I mighty 
could, would, or should have learned. Now, you 
may see if you can give the present tense, with its 
different persons and numbers. Give each twice, 
all together. First person. C/«s.s. I may, can or 
must learn, I may, can, or must learn. Teacher. 
Second person. Class. Thou mayest, canst, or 
must learn. Thou, etc. Teacher. Third person, etc. 
This drill may be continued in this form, till the 
class are all familiar with the variations of these 
signs, as applied to the different persons and num- 
bers. Then the other tenses of the potential may 
be taken up in the same manner. 

Teacher. I have told you the signs of the four 
tenses in the potential mood. I will repeat these 
signs, once more ; and you will notice that they are 
taken in pairs ; that the perfect tenses differ from 
the others by taking, after them, the word have. 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 133 

The teacher repeats these tenses ; then calls on 
the clasri, thus : 

Teacher. You may give me these tenses of the 
potential mood, in concert, each twice. Present. 
Class. I may, can or must learn, etc. Teacher. 
Pricr Present. Class. I may, can or must have 
learned, etc. Teacher. Past. Class. I might, 
could, would, or should learn, etc. Teacher. Prior 
Past. Class. I might, could, would, or should 

have learned, etc. The concert exercise must be 
continued till all the class can join in promptly 
and correctly. In case any pupil fails, he should 
be taken, separately, and drilled^ till he overcomes 
the difficulty. 

28. 

Third Step — Parsing Verbs. Teacher. You 
may now turn to page 91. I will take a verb and 
parse it for yon, as far as you will be able to under- 
stand me. In the thiid sentence, have been, is a verb, 
in the indicative mood, prior present tense, first 
person, singular number, to agree with its subject, 
J, according to rule^ on page 195. A finite verb 
must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person 
and number. 

I will now write the partial form, on the board, 
for parsing the verb, by which I parsed this verb, 
thus : Species? Mood? Tense? Person? Niun- 
bcr? Construction? Rule? 

Y^ou may now parse the same verb, by this form, 
and give each particular called for, by the form, 
twice, as I point. 

The class now follow the form, as directed, and 



134 GRAM>iAR. 

parse the verb, have been ; then other v^crbn : the 
teacher calling on individuals to select the iSucccs- 
sivo verbs as they occur, and to parse them. Then, 
after a verb has been parsed correctly, by an indi- 
vidual; or, after he has been corrected by the class 
jind teacher, in the manner before described, the 
class, in each instance, are called on to parse the 
same verb, in concert; giving the entire parsing, 
twice only, repeating each particular once, in each 
parsing. 

29. 
Fourth Step. The teacher prescribes for the 
next lesson, the -definitions of the words; verb, 
mood, indicative mood, potential mood, tense, pres- 
ent tense, prior present tense, past tonse, prior past 
tense, future tense, prior future tense; also, for a 
parsing lesson, in writing, the sanie verbs as have 
<\lready been parsed, orally, in this exercise. 

30. 

LESSON XIII. 

First Step — Recitation of lesson prescribed, 
and examination of the written exercises, and the 
hearty approval of every point in every scholar 
that admits of it; especially, the neatness in fold- 
ing papers, and superscribing their names; neat- 
ness in the arrangement of the writing on the page; 
freedom from blots and blurs, etc. 

31. 

Second Step — Imperative Mood. Teacher. — 
There are three other moods beside the indicative 
and potential. You will know them by these p o 

I 



PRIMARy TEACHINO. 135 

culiarities, which I shall give you. The imperative 
mood is used for commanding, entreating, exhort- 
ing and permitting. It has no subject expressed. 
Take, for example: "George, shut the door." 
Shut, is a verb in the imperative mood, because it 
is used for commanding, etc. The teaclier should 
give examples of all the different particulars em- 
braced in the definition of the imperative mood, 
and then proceed to parse a veib in this mood by 
the form already given. The class should also 
parse, individually, and in concert, other cixam- 
ples, in preparation for writing. 

I 32. 

Third Step — Infinitive Mood. A similar 

I coarse may be pursued with the infinitive mood, 
and embracing the signs of two tenses ; to, being 
the si^n of the present tense; to have, the sign of 
the prior present tense. 

Fourth Step. A lesson should be prescribed, 
embracing the definitions pertaining to the verb, 
as far as the class have advanced; also, a parsing 
lesson, to be prepared, in writing, embracing verba 
in the imperative and infinitive moods. 

33. 

LESSON XIV. 

First Step — Eecitation, and I^xamination of 

written exercises. 

I 

, Second Step — A^oice. Tiarhn-^ I wish now 

I to explain the most difficult thing to understand, 

) that you will find in the whole subject of Gram- 

! mar. It is A'oice. 



.J-_J 



136 GRAMMAR. 

Voice shows the relation of action expressed b"v 
the verb, to its subject. If the verb shows that the 
subject acts, it is in the active voice. If the verb 
shows that the subject is acted upon, it is said to 
be in the passive voice ; because, passive means re- 
ceiving or suffering an action or influence. For 
example: "George runs." In this sentence, the 
verb shows that the subject, George, acts; also, in 
the sentences, " The boy drives the horse ;" "The 
stove warms the room ;" the verbs show that the 
subjects act. But, in this sentence, "The horse is 
driven by the boy," the subject is acted upon, or 
receives the actioii, or is passive to it. The verb 
is said to be in the passive voice, because the sub- 
ject is acted upon, or is passive to the action. 

Now, you may look at some verbs in the Gram- 
mar, and tell me, if you can, whether they are in 
the active or passive voice. 

Turn to page 118, aiui take the verbs as they oc- 
cur in Sentence 37, and tell me whether they are 
active or passive, and mIiv ? 

John, yon may select the last verb, and tell me 
which voice it is in. John. Have been happier. 
Teacher. Susan. Svaan. I don't think happier 
is a verb. Have been, i.s a verb. Teacher. 
Right, Susan. John, can you tell me what voice 
have been is in? John. I don't know. [Hands 
rise.] Teacher. How many think have been is 
in the active voice? [Several hands rise.] Teacher. 
How many think have been is in the passive voice? 
[Several other pupils raise their hands.] Teacher. 
How many don't know anything about it? [All 



/ 



PRIM^VRY '. EACHING. 137 

raise their hands, with a smile.] Teacher. 1 see 
you (lont understand it. 1 told you that voice was 
a difficult matter to get hold of. The truth is, that 
verb has no voice, according to my definition, as it 
does not denote action. What was my definition 
of the active voice? [Hands rise.] Teacher. IMary. 
Mary. The active voice shows that the subject 
acts. Teacher. Very well. How many can give 
me the definition of the passive voice? [Hands 
rise.] Teacher. Sarah. Sarah. The passive 
voice shows that the subject of the verb is acted 
upon. Teacher. Very well. Have been, or the 
verb to be, and other verbs which do not denote 
action, are said to be in the active or passive voice, 
according to their form. If such verbs have the 
form of verbs, whose subjects act, we will say they 
are in the active voice ; or, if they have the form 
of verbs whose subjects are acted upon, we will say, 
they are in the passive voice. 

Now, William, take another verb, and give its 
voice. William. Hast been taught, is a verb in 
the passive voice. Teacher. Why? William. 
Because the subject is acted upon. Teacher. Eight. 
Samuel, another verb. Samuel. Had not found, 
ie neither active nor passive, as I see. It don't de- 
note action, but that there wasn't any action. He 
didn't find them. Teacher. Not, is no part of 
the verb. You may omit not. Now, tcJ me what 
voice had found is in, Samuel. Sainuel. The ac- 
tive voice. Teacher. Why? Samuel. Because 
it shows, that the subject acted, if you leave out 
not. Teacher. Very well, Samuel. 



138 ^RAMMAIi. 

So tli(} class are all called on, individually, to 
give the voice of one or more verbs. 

Third Step — Parsing by the form. 

Fourth Step — Prescribing a Lesson. 

This should include a review of definitions, for 
the verb and its modifications, also definitions 
written out on the blackboard, for voice, active 
voice, and passive voice. These definitions should 
be copied by the scholars on to their slates, or on 
to paper, so that they may have no excuse for not 
l^,arniiig them. These definitions are not all found 
in any Grammar. 

34. 

LESSON XV. 

First Step — Recitation. 

Second Step — Classes. 

It will hardly be necessary to go through with 
the method of drill for the classification of verbs. 
The classification which we adopt does not agree 
with Brown's; consequently, if that Grammar is 
used, definitions must be written out on the board. 
Such definitions may be found in this volume, 
Part III, Section 60. 

35. 

Third Step — Parsing. 

The complete form for parsing verbs may now 
be given ; and the class will need drilling on thip 
form, in connection with the form for pronouna 
and nouns, for many days — perhaps weeks —in 
ponnction with written lessons. 



i 1 
- I 



PRIMARY TEACFIING. 



139 



36. 

GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 

The remaining Parts of Speech. 

The Adjective, Participle, Adverb, Preposition, 
CV)ninnction, and Exclamation, iiiay be made sub- 
jects of lessons, occasionally, to ^'we variety to the 
drills in parsing verbs, pronouns, and nouns. 

The adjective would have been introduced more 
properly, immediately after the nouns, in this 
course of lessons; but, from its greater simplicity, 
it was thought preferable to give all the space to 
the more complex forms and facts involved in the 
noun, pronoun and verb. 

37. 

THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

The most important of these rules will be learn- 
ed in connection with the drills already given, 
without assigning special lessons for learning 
them. Such lessons should, however, be given, 
sooner or later, and the scholars should be required 
to give them hy number, as they are called for, prO" 
miscuously, by the teacher. The advantage of this 
is, that they can afterwards refer to them by num- 
ber; thus saving much time and labor in the pars- 
ing lessons, both oral and written. The more dif- 
ficult rules for construction, as, for example, that 
for the predicate nominative, should have special 
drills, and entire lessons devoted to them ; other- 
T'ise, they nc^'er will be well understood. 



140 



GRAMMAR. 



38. 
It is ar. exoeIlf;nt plan to give ]>arsing lessonc 
in the examples of false syntax, furnished for cor- 
rection in the c^rammar used, confining the attention 
of the class chiefly to the words which violate the 
rules ; requiring, that a pupil, before parsing the 
word assigned him, correct it, and give the reason 
for his correction ; then that he parse it in full. 

39. 

HORIZONTAL PARSING. 

Much more progress may be made, in a given 
time, after a class shall have become tolerably 
familiar with all the parts of speech, by pursuing 
the horizontal method of parsing. 

The First Step, in this method, is to call on 
the class for the parts of speech, only, as they 
occur in any given passage. The Second Step is 
to give the class only to which each word belongs; 
for example, (see Clnrk's Grammar, pages 104, 1 19, 
and 154). Let the scholars, in succession, as they 
sit, give the classes of the words, as they occur, 
thus: A, indefinite; man, common ; of, not classi- 
fied; a, indefinite; lively, common or qualifying; 
imagination, common; has, irregular, transitive, etc. 

THiTtD Step — The cases only, of nouns and 
pronouns. 

Fourth Step — The constructions only, of the 
nouns and pronouns. 

Fifth Step — The rules only, which apply to 
the cases of nouns, pronouns and verbs. 

Sixth Step — The construction and ruij2s ol 
till the words, as they occur, in sueccessi >n. 



PRIMARY TEAC[IING. Ml 

Much time may be saved, by adopting any oi.e 
Df these steps, which the class may seem most to 
need. Thus, those points on which the (dass are 
well posted, may be laid aside, for the time, and 
their attention directed, exclusively, to those in 
which they are found most defective. 

40. 

GENERAL CAUTIONS. 

This entire plan demands the exercise of the 
closest watchfulness, on the part of the teacher, 
that no material points are omitted ; that nothing, 
which has once been passed over, should be so long 
neglected, in the drills, as to be forgotten. 

The FORMS OF PARsiN'G, for 9,11 the parts of speech, 
should be well memorized, and so frequent prac- 
tice should be given, in the use of them all, that 
no one can be forgotten. 

Care should be taken, that only one constrdc- 
noN be given to each word, except to double rela- 
\ives. which, from supplying two cases, are in two 
constructions. Nouns and pronouns, in apt'Ositton, 
are too frequently parsed as if also in the same 
construction as the word with which they are in 
apposition. The fact of their being in apposition. 
is sufficient to determine their case, and any other 
construction would be superfluous. The Pred.cate 
Nominative, is not unfrequently parsed by teach- 
ers who enjoy some reputation, as being in the 
objective case, and governed by an intransitive or 
passive verb. The scholar should be drilled long, 
and thoroughly, on this point, till he accustoms 



142 GRAMMAK. 

himself to ascertain that an intransitive or passive 
verb is used; and, that the noun after it, means j 
the same thing as the noun before it. 

In the distinction of personal and relative pro- 
nouns, there is generally more obscurity and error 
than in any other part of Grammar. It arises, in 
part, from their inappropriate names; but chiefly, 
from the erroneous or obscure definitions used for 
them. 

A personal pronoun is too frequently defined as 
one which relates to persons, and a relative pro- 
noun as one which relates to an antecedent. Both 
of these definitions are abominable in themselves, 
and lamentable in their results. 

In all the parsing exercises, constant care should 
be exercised in selecting such sentences and 
WORDS, for drill, as will best exemplify the princi- 
ples presented. From a want of such care, arise 
confusion, embarrassment, disgust and discourage- 
ment. 

Again ; scholars should neither be required, nor 
permitted, to parse a word any farther than the 
class have been taken along together, and a form 
has bo in given. 

KoTE. — The various models found iu CLARK'b Grammar, 
pp. 104, JOS, p.nd 154, 'oiay be profitably consulted by tJif 



METHOD OF TEACHING ADVANCED 
CLASSES. 

41. 

PRELfMlNARY REMARKS. 

When, by the method described in the foregoing 
pages, or by any other, a class can distinguish all 
the parts of speech, and parse them in the more 
obvious constructions, a review of the entire sub- 
ject should be commenced, with the use of outlinkf . 

Some teachers decry outlines altogether, and 
confine themselves and their scholars to the order 
and substance of the text-book, or what is worse, 
to no order or substance, except to such as appears 
in gas and vanishes in forgetfulness. 

My experience is, that classes making use of 
outlines as guides to investigation, are much more 
independent, thorough and critical, in their study; 
and, that they obtain more correct, liberal and 
comprehensive views from such investigation, than 
without outlines. Outlines, used properly, will 
never limit investigation; but every well-trained 
pupil understands, that any facts, or principles, or 
items not provided for in the outlines, must be 
incorporated into it by himself; and he thus en- 
joys the satisfaction of an original discoverer. 

Not only so, but it is an excellent plan to re- 
quire a class, having used outlines enough to ap- 
preciate the logic of their arrangement, to make 
7 (143) 



144 vjRAMMAR. 

out outlines, each pupil for himself, and to present 
them, on paper, to the teacher, for examination. 
Then the teacher may select some one or more of 
j these, for presentation to the class. The pupil 
will copy his own work on to the board. 

42. 

METHODS OF USING OUTLINES. 

First Method. Instead of assigning a given 
number of pages, in the text-book, for scholars to 
study, for recitation, an outline of a subject may 
be copied on to the blackboard, by one of the pu- 
pils, from a manuscript prepared by the teacher. 
The class will all copy the outline on to slates or 
loose paper. It is then expected, that at the next 
recitation every pupil will be prepared to give the 
whole of the outline on the board, entirely from 
memory ; also, any definitions, explanations, and 
applications, that the outline or the subject may 
call for. The teacher does not, ordinarily, call on 
one individual to write out the whole outline, but 
distributes it in such portions, as may be conveni- 
ent, to different pupils. These portions, so as- 
signed, they may write, immediately, on the board; 
and describe them, when they are again called on, 
by the teacher. After having assigned the differ- 
ent topics of the outline, to the class, (and each of 
the topics, if the class is large, nray be given to 
several different scholars,) the teacher may occupy 
any time, before scholars who have had topics as- 
signed them are ready to report, in examining oth- 
ers who have had no topics assigned th-em, orally. 
by questions ; or, by proposing topics for them to 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 145 

iiseuss, without having written any portion of the 
outline on the board. Such a course would be ne- 
cessary, with a large class and a small blackboard. 
Teachers using outlines, should not lay aside 
the ordinary methods of assigning lessons, and of 
recitations, entirely. They may adopt this method 
of reporting, occasionally, in advance lessons; al- 
ways in review lessons; or, as the nature of the 
subject, and the aptitude and discipline of the 
pupils may require. 

43. 

(Second Method. An outline may be assigned to 
only one pupil, for him to use in investigating and 
mastering a subject. He will be expected to give 
his report, on that subject, at the next recitation, 
either without the written outline before him, in 
any form, or with the outline written on the black- 
board, /ro7« memory^ in presence of the class. In 
the latter case the pupil, in giving his report, 
takes his place, at the board, with the pointer, and 
directs the attention of the class to the several 
topics, sub topics, and distinct items, as he ampli- 
fies them with definitions, explanations, exemplifi- 
cations, illustrations and applications. These may 
be drawn from books, or from the pupil's own ex- 
perience and observation. 

It is perceived, that the scholar thus obtains the 

power, almost unconsciously, of speaking system- 

I j atically, and, at length, on any subject that he may 

have properly and thoroughly investigated. To • 
8uch pupils as are the best disciplined, adcancG [ 
suhje>ts may ^e assigned, wi*^hout outlines. It is ' 



i 



140 GRAMMAR. 

then expected that they will prepare their own 
outlines, and present thei:;, as their owa, on the 
blackboard, at the time of giving their report. 

A definite time should be appointed, for giving 
the report; also, a definite amount of time, in 
which to give it; as five minutes, ten minutes, or 
fifteen minutes, according to the age of the pupii, 
the time occupied by the whole recitation, and the 
demands of the subject assigned for investigation. 

The most interesting public examinations that 
I have ever attended, have been conducted on this 
plan. Special subjects were assigned to individual 
pupils, on which to report or deliver lectures before 
the public audience. The audience, of course, are 
informed of the plan adopted, in the preparation 
for the examination ; and, that it is not designed so 
much to exhibit the scholars' knowledo;e of the 
branches generally, as to test their mental power 
in grasping a subject, and in communicating their 
views under embarrassins; circumstances. 

The audience should be urged to criticise the 
pupil, during the delivery of his lecture. Other 
pupils also, especially members of the same class, 
should consider themselves free to criticise, to 
correct misstatements, or to fill up omissions. 

44. 

METHOD OF CRITICISING REPORTS. 

The scholars should do most of the criticising. 
They will learn much more by criticising than by 
being criticised. 

But system should be secured in these criti- 

1 \ 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 147 

cisms; or nothing definite, or satisfactory, will be 
accomplished. 

The order to be followed may be this : at the 
conclusion of a report, before the pupil reporting 
has taken h'is seat, the teacher may call on the 
class for criticisms, on — 1st, Pronunciation ; 2d, 
Spelling; 3d, Arrangement of the Outline, includ- 
ing, also, omissions or repetitions; 4th, Defini- 
tions : 5th, Promiscuous matters. 

Lastly, the teacher makes any additional criti- 
cisms, remarks, or explanations required. The 
pupil having a special subject assigned him, is, 
of course, excused from preparing the lesson as- 
siiined to the class. 

By giving the subjects, in order, to difi'erent 
pupils, on successive days, reviews will be accom- 
plished in a manner more interesting and impres- 
sive than in that generally pursued. The subjects 
having been passed over once in review, as far 
as the class have advanced, the same order may be 
pursued by other pupils, as by those who first had 
them for special study and reporting. 

45. 

Ordinary Method of conducting a recitation 
with an advanced Grammar Class. 

The teacher has a resrister for this class as for 
ill others. He calls the names of the pupils, as he 
finds them in his register; sometimes in the direct 
order, sometimes in the inverse order ; sometimes 
in the direct order, omitting alternate names ; then 
in the inverse order. By this method of calling 
on the members of a class, he secures uncertainty. 



I ^ 



148 GRAMMAR. 

on the part of a pupil, as to when he may be called 
on ; and, certainty, on his own part, that no pupil 
is neglected in the recitation. He grades each 
pupil as he recites ; which grading show^s who has 
been called on. 

A scholar's name being called, he rises, and the 
subject of a section is proposed for him to discuss. 
If he should fail to reach all the matter of the 
section, the teacher will reach his knowledge oi 
ignorance of those points, by questions. 

Jn the case of parsing, or correction of false 
syntax, the pupil, when called on, rises and parses 
the word, or corrects the sentence, without inter- 
ruption from the class ; but when he concludes, 
the teacher calls on the class for criticism, by pro- 
nouncing the word "Class." Other pupils, who 
have criticisms to offer, raise their hands, and are 
called on, by name, separately, to give them. The 
teacher will call on those first, who are generally 
the least inclined to offer criticisms. Ho will also 
call on any pupil, for criticisms or corrections, who 
is seen to have remitted his attention or interest in 
the recitation. Such criticisms are given, by the 
pupil, sitting. No pupil, when standing, resun;es 
his seat, without permission from the teacher. It 
is well, in case a pupil fails in a topic or question 
j,roposed to him, to pass it to the next pupil, and 
if he fails, to call on the class. That being dis- 
posed of, a second topic or question is pro-posed to 
the scholar first having failed; and so on, till the 
teacher is satisfied, as to his grade, for th3 recita- 
tiion. 



ADVANCED TEACHINO l49 

OUTLINES. 

Remark. The following cutlines are accompa- 
nied only by tlie definitions of such words as, 1 
conceive, are inadequately, or incorrectly defined, 
in most Grammars. It is not supposed, that this 
number of The Normal is to be used as a text-book. 
But, it is hoped that both teachers and scholars 
will find it serviceable as a reference book, in 
their daily preparation for recitations. 

47. 

GEN:t:B:AL OUTLINE OF GRAM>'\IAR. 

Remarh. This outline was introduced, in Pait j 

[I, page 49, and the definitions and explanations i 

given, in connection with it, for the purpose of ) 

keeping the chain of Outlines unbroken from the i 
General Outlines of Knowledge, in Part I, to thoee 

of Orthoepy and Orthography, in Part II. l 

/ 
1 

OUTLINE OF ORTHOGENY, ! 



[ Noun, extended on page li 
Verb, •• " 1 



150. 
157. 
Pronoun. " •' 162. 



OBTnoGENV, < A^'J^ctive, 
* I rarticiple, 
Adverb, 
j Conjunction 
(. Interjection or Exclamation. 

48. 

DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS, AND REMARKS. 

Orthogevv. For definition, see Part II, page 
45, section f'. ' For definitions of the parts of 
Epeech, see any text-book in general use. 



49. 

UUTLINE OF THE NOUN. 



c-« ■« 



o 


«-~ * cT 








•3 


> 


£"5 bD 




o -^ 




s 


be O fc. 










c 


<c ^ o 




<U OJ . 






1 . 1 


piifa 








U3 

s 


^ CJ *- '2 


_- 


O) 


>> >. t»» 




55 


c >■ c " 


u 


c 


uKpsm 


?yc 


a 







(5 •^"oa ^-tc .5 5 



=: a 



^ ■ — ^^ — -J 



rK 



c^ 



© 



(150) 



J^ 






ta; 



■I o o 

I ._ >» 



a = S a^ ,^ 

— C U E" 

3 «f « 03 

i'. O a, o 



£5 



aw — c 

Urn rri C 

u — ^ o 



r,-.- = 

OUTLINE OF THE NOUN— Continued. 



c< 




« S t; 2 9-S. 

o r, o ^ ^ J 



3 


V) 


a 


rn 


a 


■<>> 




c 


fc> 


C 


ii 


w 


c 


o 


o 


O 


o 


s 


u, 


a 


:^ 


U 


fa 


o 




o 












> 


o 






o 




a 
a 

S 








> 

s 




c 


Q 






..a 




:>r, 


cu, 






O 






i 












^ 









(151) 



152 GRAMMAR. 

50. 
DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS AND REMARK'S. 

Noun — A name. 

Remark. Terms include all those tecLiiical 
words necessary to an understanding of the f-ub 
ject, and not elsewhere introduced into the outlice 
They should all be defined, by the pupil, in giv- 
ing a report. 

Classes. Results of an arrangement of similar 
things, according to some definite plan 

Remark. The sub-classes of common nouns arc 
only noticed in parsing, when the noun falls into 
one of the sub-classes in the first vertical column. 

Modification. Any form or condition of words, 
U3ed for grammatical distinction. 

51. 

CONSTRUCTIONS. 

Construction. The method of framing a word 
Into a sentence or phrase, by which it acquires any 
given modification. 

Remark. Examples of nouns, in some of the 

more difficult constructions of the several cases, 

will be given, in which I diffet' somewhat from 

both Clark and Brown. 

52. 

Nominative in the Predicate. 

Explanation. Every sentence is divided into 
two parts; the Subject and Predicate. The sub- 
ject is that of which something is asserted : the 
predicate is that which is asserted cf the subject, 
and always includes the verb of the sentence. The 
noun which follows an intransitive or passive verb 



r 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 



153 



and denotes the same thing as its subject, is said 
to be a predicate noun, and is always in the same 
case as the subject. The subject of a finite verb 
(i. ^., a verb not in the infinitive mood,) is in the 
nominative case; consequently a noun in the prod 
icatc, with a finite verb, must be in tlie nominative 
case. 

Example First. "Gold is a metal.'' 
Metal is a noun, common, third, singular, neu- 
ter, nominative, being in the predicate with the 
intransitive verb, is, and denoting the same thing 
as the subject, gold. 

Remark. Words, in this construction, arc too 
frequently parsed in the objective case, and are 
said to be governed by the intransitive verb, which 
can have no government. 

Example Second. " He was named John." 
John is a noun, proper, third, singular, mascu- 
line, nominative, being in the predicate with the 
passive verb, was named, and denoting the same 
thing as he, the subject of the verb : 



53. 

APPOSITION WITH A SENTENCE. 

ExainpU. '' He asked me to visit him in the 
country; 9l privilege of which I gladly availed mv- 
self." 

Privilege is a noun, common, third, singular, 
neuter, nominative, in apposition with the sen- 
tence, " He asked me to visit him in the country." 



154 GR A JIM AH. 

54. 

NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT. 
These constructions are exemplified and ex 
plaine5, in Clark's English Grammar, pages 85 and 
231. 

55. 

SUBJECT OF THE INFINITIVE. 

Remark. Strangely enough, this construction 
is overlooked by Brown, and many other excellent 
grammarians. 

Explanation. In the abridgement of a subordi- 
nate sentence, used as the object of a transitive 
verb, the finite verb of the sentence is changed 
into the infinitive, and its subject into the objec- 
tive case, provided it difi*ers from the subject of 
the principal sentence. 

Example. "Susan desires, that Samuel may go 
away." This sentence, abridged, takes this form : 
Susan desires Samuel to go away. 

Brown, and many other grammarians, would 
parse Samuel as the object of desire. This is 
plainly not the sense. Susan does not desire Sam- 
uel, but desires the action, implied in the subordi- 
nate sentence. Then the subordinate sentence is 
the object of the verb, desire, and not Samuel. 
The usage of all languages puts the subject of the 
infinitive, in this construction, in the objective 
form. We see this, more plainly, in English, by 
the use of the pronoun, in a similar sentence. Un- 
ftbridged, "John understood that he said," etc.; 
abridged, "John understood him to say " etc. 



( I 



\._- 



PRIMARY TEAOHINO. 155 

Ruh^ for subject of the infinitive. 

The subject of the injinitive is coiinnonh/ in the ob- 
jective coise. — Sometimes in the nominative. Seo 
Clark's Grammar, page ISD. 

56. 

OBJECTIVE IN THE PREDICATE. 

Explanation. By Clark, intransitive and passive 
verbs take the same case after them as before tliem, 
when both words refr to the same thins:. 

In the last construction, the subject of the in 
finitive is put in the objective. If, then, this in- 
finitive is an intransitive or passive verb, and has 
a noun in the predicate, denoting the same thing 
as its subject, it will be in the same case, viz : the 
objective. 

Example First. "I thought him to be a scholar.'' 
Scholar is in the objective, in the predicate; or, as 
we say more briefly, is a predicate objective. 

Example Second. "Zachariah wished him to 
be called John.'^ 

John is parsed thus : John is a noun, proper, 
third, singular, masculine, objective in the predi- 
cate, with the passive verb, to be called : according 
to Rule 21, Brown ; him, being the objective sub- 
ject before it. 

OBJECTIVE CASE INDEPENDENT. 

Nouns expressing distance, time, weight, and 
measure, are often put in the Dbjective case, with- 
out a governing word. 

Explanation In such examples as the follow 
ing, -' lie walked a mile," " She studied an hour.' 



15fi GRAMMAR. 

" It weighed a pound," etc., there is no preposi 
tion, which, being supplied, will make good sense^ 
or euphony. Usage does not warrant us in sup- 
plying any preposition, to govern these objectives; 
hence, we say, they are in the objective independ- 
ent. 

57. 

DRILL CN THE TRECEDING CCNSTRUCTIONS. 

The teacher will do well to assign for a lesson 
to an advanced class, perhaps for several lessons, 
the several constructions of nouns; requiring each 
scholar to bring in sentences, written on paper, 
exemplifying each construction, with the exempli- 
fying word underscored. These sentences should 
not be copied from any Grammar. 

The time of the recitation may be taken up by 
3ach scholar's parsing a word, in one of his own 
sentences, he having first written the sentence on 
the blackboard. The order of proceeding should 
be this : the teacher calls on one pupil to write a 
sentence exemplifying the predicate nominative, 
and so on till each scholar has been called on, and 
till each construction has been thus exemplified, 
one or more times, on the blackboard. 

Then each scholar may be called on, the second 
time, to parse the word, in his own S3ntence, in 
the required construction. 

If one pupil should fail, in giving a correct ex- 
ample, for any required construe don, another 
should be called on to give it. 



PRIMARY TEACHINQ. 



167 



58. 

OUTLINE OF THE VERB. 



^Te.'ma: Subject, Object, Preterit, Finite, 

I 

I Classes, 



As to Form \ f^egular, Irregular, 
AS to torin, I Defective, Redundftni. 



AatoUse, j ••f"«»^!^e. 
' I Intransitiv 



( CUB, ' 



f Form, 

I I Voice, 

.2 I Mood, 

.2 I 

'o I Tense, 

'< |.„ 

I. Number, 

r 



Principal . 
Parts, ] 



Names, 



Tests, 



Ord.-nnry, 
Emphatic, 
Progressive. 

Active, 
Passive. 

Ind., Sub., Poten., 
Imp., Inf., Part. 

Present, Prior Pieseiit, 
Past, Prior Past. 
Future, Prior Futuro. 

1st, 2nd, 3rd. 

Singular, 
Plural. 

C Present Indicative, 
Past Indicative, 
Present Participle, 
Past Participle. 

5 (now,) (yesterday,) 
/ (-ing,) (having.) 



Signs, i o 



' «• f Pres., (now.) Past, (yesterday.) 
•^ I Future, shall or will. 
d \ Prior Present, have, hast, or bad. 
~ j Prior Past, had. or luulst. 

Prior Future, sliali have or will have. 

Present, may, can, or must. 
Past, might, could, would, or should. 
Prior Present, may, can, or must have 
Prior Past, might, could would, oi 
should liave. 

o , . .. ( If, though. 
Subjunctive, J ^^,^,g^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^^ 

Imperative, — Its uses are its Signs. 



I 



Infinitive 



Present, To ; 

Prior Pr^bcut. i'o have. 



158 GRAMMAR. 



Forui of Parsing 



OUTLINE or THE VERB — CONCLUDED. 

Species, Classej!, (Principal Parts,) 



i Species, Classej!, (I'rincipal Parts,) 
(Form,) Voice, Mood, Tense, 
Person, Number, Coustructioo, Rule. 



Form of Parsing j Species, Classes, j y^' \ 
I'articiples, j Derivation, Construction, Rule. 

59. 

DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS AND REMARiCM. 

Remark. The greater part of the definitions 
required in giving a report on the outline of the 
verb, can be obtained from all grammars. I shall 
only give such definitions as, I conceive, are gen- 
erally given erroneously. 

Verb. A word used to assert action, being, oi 
state of being. 

Explanation. The word assert is used here, 
with the meanings of afiirm, deny, ask a question, 
command, exhort, intreat, permit, suppose, grant, 
or state a condition. 

Regular Verb. One that makes its preterit or 
past tense, and past participle, by adding ed to 
the present, according to Definition 120, Clark's 
Grammar. 

Transitive Verb. One that require?^ an object 
fo complete its meaning. 

Remark 1. A common definition of a trao- 
3itive verb is: "One that has an object after it.*' 
This last expression, "after it," is constantly mis- 
leading the pupil; for, in the case of relative and 
interrogative pronouns, the object is always before 
the verb. In the passive voice, also, the object be- 
ing used as the subject, is, necessarily, before the 
verb. 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 159 

Remark 2. Some contend, that passive verbs 
are intransitive. By the faulty definition, given 
above, they are right. In truth, however, they 
are entirely wrong, or all our dictionaries are 
wrong. For the dictionaries give all verbs, which 
admit of the passive voice, as transitive. But, 
should the objector say, that dictionaries do not 
give passive verbs at all ; then I answer, that I con- 
ceive they do, just as much as they give infinitive 
verbs, or finite verbs, or any other kinds, which 
take their names from their modifications. 

Remark 3. Every transitive verb admits of 
a passive voice; and no intransitive verb can be 
passive, when used intransitively; for the reason, 
that the passive verb always uses its object for its 
subject, and intransitive verbs have no objects. 

Voice. That modification of the verb, which 
distinguishes the relation of the verb to its subject. 

Active Voice. That form which verbs assume, 
whose subjects act. 

Explanafion. By this definition, all intransi- 
tive verbs are in the active voice, for they have the 
form of transitive verbs in the active voice. 

Passive Voice. That form which a verb as 
sumes, to denote that its subject is acted upon. 



60. 

) TESTS AND SIGNS. 

Explanation. The use of tests and signs, in 
aiding pupils to form the principal parts and sub- 
ordinate parts of verbs, is g'ven on pages 128-1.13. 



160 GRAMMAR. 

Remark, In the Form of Parsing, principal 
parfa^ and form, are ineiosed in parentheses, to 
show that they are not gi^en, in parsing all verbs. 

The principal parts only, of irregular verbs, are 
noticed in parsing; and the form only, when it is 
emphatic or progressive. 

61. 

CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS AND PARTICIPLES. 

Rem.ark. The consfrnction of finite verbs, is 
generally simple ; but the construction of infinitives 
and participles demands close attention. 

In addition to Clark's Rules, or rather in the place 
of his tenth, 1 would use this 

Rule. Infinitives and participles have the con- 
struction of nouns ^ adjectives, or adi'erhs. 

In parsing infinitives and participles, the pupils 
should give their construction in this manner: 
"With the construction of a noun, being the sub- 
ject of," etc. 

62. 

EXAMPLES OF PARSING INFINITIVES. 

To show this more plainly, I will give several 
examples. 

"To steal is base." 
To steal, is n verb, irregular, transitive; steal, 
stole, stealing, stolen, active, infinitive, present, with 
the construction of a noun, being the subject of the 
verb, is. 

*' lie desired to go." 
To go, is a verb, irregular, intransitive, go, went, 
going, gone, active, infinitive, present, with the 



r 



ADV'ANCED TEACHING. 161 

ooustruction of a noun, being the object of the 
verb, desired. 

•' He was unwilling to be called a shirk." 
To he called, is a verb, regular, transitive, pas- 
sive, infinitive, present, with the const riiclio!i of an 
adverb, limiting the adjective, unwilling. 

" This is the time to study. " 
To study, is a verb, n-gular, transitive, active, 
infinitive, present, with the construciion of an 
adjective, relating to the noun, time. 

(■/.]. 

EXAMPLES OF PAR.SING PARTICIPLES. 

" I saw the sun ?-/s/»^." 

Rising is a participle, imperfect, active, from rise, 
rose, rising, risen, with the construction of an ad- 
jective, relating to the noun, sun. 

"Bj being rejt<3ted, his fortune was made." 

Being rejected, is a participle, imperfect, passive, 
from reject, etc., with the construction of a noun, 
being the object of the preposition, by. 



1G2 



GRAMMAR. 



CD 

o 



64. 

OUTLINE OF THE PRONOUN. 

f'Terms: Represent, Antecedent, Consequent. 

I [if Simple, j [i^J»-^;- .^^ I Inflections 

Personal, ■( Bin i < ^Wself, 

\i ^«"^P'^""^'' ! Thyself, 
I = ^ 
{''■f- Peculiar uses of we, you, and it. 

( ^ ( c>- 1 \ Who, which, / t p, ^. 

I Simple, 1 ^,j^^^; ^,^^ ^^^ j Inflections, 

O -s rt J I Whoever, 

Relative,^ ^ | Compound, ^ Whichever, etc. 



cc 



I 



'^ Double, j What = j 



Thing which, 
or, that which. 



Interrogative, 



Who, which, what, 

Represent the answer of the question. 



Modifications — the same as nouns. 

'Species, Class, (sub-cIap?,) 
. . I Person, Number, 

Ponn of Parsing, \ Agreement, j q^^^q,.^ RuIq, 
Case, 
^ Construction, Rule. 



65. 

DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS AND REMARKS. 

Represent. To stand in the place of, with simi- 
lar properties. 

Antecedent. A word going before a pronoun, 
?nd represented by it. 

Consequent. A word coming after a proncmn, 
and represented by it. 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 163 

Remark. An interrogative pronoun always rep- 
resents a consequent found in tlie answer of the 
question. 

Personal Pronoun. One that is always used 
for the same grammatical person. 

Remark 1. liruwn's definition, "A personal 
pronoun, is a pronoun that shows, by its form, 
what person it is," appears to nie only to apply to 
the pronoun I ; the letter I, being used for the 
number one. But I see nothing in the form of the 
other personal pronouns to indicate their person, 
whether first, second, or third. 

Remark 2. The common definition given for 
a personal pronoun, by the great majority of 
seholars and teachers, viz: "One that stands for 
persons," should be hooted out of every school- 
room. 

Relative Pronoun. One that is not always 
used for the same grammatical person; and con- 
nects clauses. 

Remark 1. Clark's definition for a relative 
pronoun, is a good one, but I have framed mine 
as antithetic to that for the personal pronoun. 

Remark 2. The common definition for a rela- 
tive pronoun, viz : "One that relates to an an- 
tecedent," is worse, if possible, than that for ii 
personal pronoun. If any other teacher finds it 
necessary to use as much labor, as I do, in smoking 
out these vermin, from their lurking places, he has 
my most heartfelt sympathy and commiseration. 

Interrogative Pronoun. One that is used for 
asking, questions. 



164 GRA-AiMAll. 

66. 
EXAMPLES IN PARSING SIMPLE PRONOUNS. 

"I, who was present, know the particulars." 
/ is a pronoun, personal, representing the name 
of the speakei, and agreeing with it in the first, 
singular, common, according to Rule 4, Clark. 
It is in the nominative, being the subject of know, 
according to Rule 1, Clark. 

Who is a pronoun, relative, representing its an- 
tecedent, I. and agreeing with it in the first, singu- 
lar, common, according to Rule 4. It is in the 
nominative, being the subject of was, according to 
Rule 1. 

"He pursues just such studies as he likes." 
As is a pronoun, relative, representing its ante- 
cedent, studies, and agreeing with it, in the third, 
plural, neuter, according to Rule 4. It is in the 
objective, being the object of, the verb, likes, and 
governed by it, according to Rule 3. 

"What will become of us without religion." 
What is a pronoun, interrogative, representing 
the answer of the question, in person, number and 
gender unknown ; according to Rule 4. It is in 
the nominative, being the subject of, will become, 
according to Rule 1. 

67. 

EXAMPLES IN PARSING DOUBLE RELATIVES 

" Shall I hide from Abraham ichnf. I do?" 
JVJiat is a pronoun, relative, double, equivalent 
to (hiug which. Tiling^ the antecedent part. Is a 
noun, common, third, singular, neuter, objective, be- 
ing the object of hide, and 2:ovevned bv it, according 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 



105 



bo Rale 3. Which, the relative part, is a pronoun, 
relative, representing its antecedent, thing; and 
agreeing with it in the third, singular, neuter, ac- 
cording to Rule 4. It is in the objective, being the 
object of do, and governed by, it, according to Rule 

o 

" Let the lad become ichat ycju wish him to be." 
What is a pronoun, relative, double, equivalent 
to, thing which. Thing, the antecedent part, is a 
noun, common, third, singular, neuter, indefinite, 
in the predicate, after the intransitive verb, become, 
according to Rule ; lad, being the subject objec- 
tive, before the same verb. Which, the relative 
part, is a pronoun, relative, representing thing, and 
agreeing with it, in the third, singular, neuter ac 
cording to Rule 4. It is in the objective in the 
predicate, with the intransitive verb, to be ; accord- 
ing to Rule 6; him, being the subject objectivo 
before the same verb. 

03. 

OUTLINE OF brown's RULES OF SYNTAX. 

c CN( uns with nouns; Kiiles III, XXI. 

5 J rrunouna with nouns; Rules V. VI. VTI. VIII. 

S J Voibs with subjects ; Rulos IX, X, XI, XII. 

^ [Verbs with verbs; Rule XIII. 

*^ ( Adjectives to noun^ and pronouns ; Rcles I. IV, 

Participles to nrmns and pronouns; Rule XIV. 
.2 I Adverbs to verbs, etc.; Rule XV. 
s j Conjunctions to words nnd sentpnces ; Rule XVL 
^ I Prepositions to words; Rule XVII. 
[ Interjections, no relation: Rule XVIII. 

f Subject of finite verb ; Rule II. 
J I Subject of infinitive verb; no rule givca. 
5 I Object of verbs ; Rule XX. 
5 j Object of prepositions: Rule XXII. 

Possessive case: Rule XIX. 

Infinitives; Rules XXIII, XXiV. 

I'articii.les ; Rule XIV. 

Ctiiso absolute; Rule XXV. 



16t) GRAM 31 AK. 

69. 
■REMARKS AND EXPLANATIONS. 

Remark 1. This outline differs from Bnwn'K 
arrangement but in a few particulars, viz : 1st. 
Agreement and relation are separated. 2d. Rule 2. 
which he includes in agreement, I place in govern- 
ment, as I conceive a verb governs or controls the 
ease of its subject, just as much as the case of its 
object. 3d. Rule 21 is placed under the head of 
agreement, for the reason that it is a plain case 
of agreement. 

Remark 2. The subject of the infinitive is pro- 
vided for, in Part III, section 55. 

Remark 3. This outline should be assigned for 
a lesson to the whole class, for review as directed 
in Part III, Section 42 ; and to individuals, for re- 
porting, as explained in Section 43. 

The teacher will require each pupil reportiu'^ 
to give a sentence, co itaining a word, exemplify- 
rngthe construction tc which each rule relates. 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 



167 



70. 

OUTLINE OF ANALYSIS. 



Simple, 



m I 

O I 






As to f orni, < Complex, 
Compound, 

As to Nature 
of Proposition. 

1 r 

•§* Subject, 



Complete, 

Abridged. 

Principal, 

Subordinate. 

Leading, 

Co-ordinate. 

Declarative, 

Imperative, 

Interrogative. 

Simple. 

Complex. 

Compound. 



a 



J3 

' 3 

CO 

Connectives, 



I Predicate, 

I 

f Adjective, 

\ Ad 

t.Objectiv 



Attribute, ) j 
Copula, j- -j 

jective, ) I i 
verbial, /• ■< ( 
jective. ) \ ( 



Independent Forms, 



Simple, 

Complex, 

Compound 

i Co-ordinate, 

/ Sabordinate. 

{Expletives, 
Exclamatives, 
Compellatives, 
Circumstances. 



Simple, 
Complex, 
Compound. 
Ist Class, 
2d Class, 
3d Class 



I 9. 



Classify the sentence, j ^^ [^ ^o"""^' 

"' ' ! as to proposition. 

Give complex snbject. 

Give simple subject. 

Describe modifiers of subject, in order, by giving 

structure, nature, and class. 
Give biise of the modifier, and describe its modifiers, 

in order, as before. 
Give complex predicate. 
Give simple predicate. 
Give attribute and copula. 
Give modifiers, and desrcibe them, as before. 



Remark. Elements of the third class are first 
described as elements, then as sentences according 
to this form. 

8 



168 



GRAMMAR. 



< 



OUTLINE OF ANALYSIS — CONCLUDED. 

f ( Substantive, 



As to 



Abridged \ 
Sentences. '. 



)hubstantiv< 
Adjective, 
Adverbial. 



C Participial, 

I . „ . r, . ^- Absolute, 

As to Construction, • t r- •^. ' 

I ' J Iniinitive, 

[ [ Participial Noun. 

Method of Abridgment, Remove the Connective, etc. 

See Section 82. 

Order of Analysis, \ If .'" l^"" abridged form, 
•^ ' ( 2d, in the expanded form. 



71. 

DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS AND REMARKS. 

Analysis ; see Part II. page 46, section 9. 

Sentence. An enunciation of a thought, in- 
cluding a verb and its subject. 

Simple Sentence. One that contains but one 
proposition, -or one assertion and its subject. 

Complete Sentence. One whose verb is finite. 

Abridged Sentence. One whose verb is in the 
infinitive or participial mood. 

Compound Sentence. One that containr^ two or 
more simple or complex sentences, of equal rank. 

Leading Sentence. The first simple or complex 
sentence, comprised in a compound sentence. 

Coordinate Sentence. Any other sentence than 
the first, and of equal rank with it, in a compound 
sentence. 

Complex Sentence. One that contains a com- 
plete subordinate sentence as a constituent part. 

Principal Sentence. The entire complex sen- 
tence, including all its subordinate sentences. 

Subordinate Sentence. One that is used to 
modify s^rae word or phrase in another sentence 



i. 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 169 

72. 

Element. Any part of a sentence ; including 
words, phrases and subordinate sentences. 

Principal Elements. Those without which a 
."jonteuce cannot exist. They are the subject and 
predicate. 

Subject. That of which somethinL? is asserted. 
See Part III, Section 59, Verb. 

Predicate. The assertion made of the subject. 

Attribute. That property, quality, characteris- 
tic, name or circumstance, asserted of the subject. 

Copula. That which joins the attribute to the 
subject and makes the assertion. 

Remark. The verb, to be, with its variouf? 
modifications, is commonly used as the copula ; 
and any other verb can be resolved into the verb, 
be, and the peculiar attribute which it expresses. 

Subordinate Elements. All elements, other 
than the principal elements. They are adjective, 
adverbial, and substantive. 

Adjective Element. One that modifies a noun. 

Adverbial Element. One that modifies any 
thing else than a noun. 

Explanation. The word noun, in these last two 
definitions, is understood to include any word, 
phrase or sentence, which assumes the functions of 
a noun. 

OnjECTivE Element. One uhicli is used as the 
object of a transitive verb or participle. 



170 ADVANCED TEACHING. 

73. 

Simple Element. One without its niodifierfi. 

Complex Element. A simple clement, with it? 
modifiers. The simple element is also called the 
base of a complex element. 

Compound Element. One comprising two or 
more simple or complex elements of equal rank, 
connected by coordinate conjunctions, expressed 
or understood. 

Element of First Class. One whose base is 
1 single word. 

Element of Second Class, One whose base 
consists of a preposition and its object, including 
infinitives. 

Element of Third Class. One whose base is 
a subordinate sentence. 

74. 

Connective. Any word that joins words, 
phrases or sentences. 

Coordinate Connective. One that joins sen- 
tences or elements of equal rank. 

Subordinate Connective. One that joins ele- 
ments of unequal rank. 

75.- 

Independent Forms. Those which have no 
grammatical construction in a sentence. 

Expletives. Those introductory words that are 
Ruperfluous in the construction of a sentence. 

Examples. 1st. " /^ is plain he can do it." 
2d. " JoA??, he is a fine fellow.' 3d. ^'^ There is a 
reason for that." //, John, and thcr^, in thesf 



PRIMARY lEACniNO. 171 

ientences, form no part of the construction, and 
are hence called expletives. 

CoMPELLATivKs. Naiucs of pcrsons addressed. 

Circumstances. Phrases containing the case 
absolute, with a participle. See Clark's Gramniar, 
paf^e 232, Note III. 

ExcLAMATiVES. Words, expressing emotions, in- 
cluding interjections, and case absolute by exclam- 
ation. See Clark's Grammar, page 278. 

76. 

EXAMPLES OF ORAL ANALYSIS BY THE FORM. 

8IMPLK 8KXTKNCES. 

1. I repent. !■* a s'mple declarative sentence, of which I is tlio 
f-i njile subject unmudified; and repent, the siiupio predicate, un- 
modified. 

2. Bi'th parties rlisgracfd themselves, is a simple declarativcsen- 
tence, of which both parties is the complexsubject; of which pat- 
ties is the simple subject, modified by hnth, a simple ndje-Mve 
element of the first class. Disgraced themselves, is the complex 
predicate, of which disgraced is the simple predic:ite, modifinl Ly 
themselves. 2L simple objective element of the first class. 

3. Spirits less rigi>ro>is ?ronld have shrunlc from suck dangers., 
is a simfile di'clarative sentence, of which, s/)i}-ifs less rigormis, 
i-! thecomplex subject, uf which spirits is the simple, subject m<idi- 
fipd by I'css rigorous, a cnmplex adjective clement of the fir.<t 
flas«, of which rignrovs, the base, is modified by less, a simple 
advprbiiil element of the first class. 

Would hare Khnml- fiom svch dangers, ia the complex pred'- 
cate. of which ivo'tld hare shrunk, is the simple ])redinate, modi- 
fied by. from f7ich dangi-rs. a complex fidverbial element of thi 
pi>C(ind class, of which dangers, the noun of the bise, is modified 
by such, a simple adjective element of the first class. 

4. Did hit natural intrepidity forsal'e him at the approach ri 
df'ith? is a siinfile interrogative sentence, of which, h7s natural 
intrenidity is the eompk-x subject, nf which intrepidity is the 
simple subject, modified by his and natural, twosimpb; adject've 
tleinents of the first class. JJid forsa!>e hitn. at the ai'proarh I'J 
death, is the complex predicate, of which did forsake is the sim- 
j)le predicate, modified hy hitn, a simple objective element of the 
first class: also by, at the approach of death, a couiplcx adverbial 
element of the second class, of which approach, the noun of the 
base, is modified by the, a simple adjective element of the first 
cla8.9; also by, of death, a simple adjective element of the second 

OllVM. 



I I 



172 GRAMMAR. 

77. 

COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

5. The chief riiii<for tunes that hefall us in life can be traceu tc 
vices and follies which loe have committed, is a complex declara- 
tive sentence, of wh'xeh.tke chief misfirtunes that hefall vsinlife^ 
is thecomplex subject, of wiiich, misfortunes is tlie simple sub- 
ject modified by the and (chief, two simple adjective elementa of 
the first cbiss; also, by that hefall us in life, a simple adjective 
element of the third class. It is aUo a simple declarative subordi- 
nate sentence, of which, that'\s the connective and simple subject, 
unmodified. Befall us in life, is theerniplex predicate, of which 
hefall is the simple predicate, modified by us. a simple objec- 
tive element of the first class; also, by in life, a simple ad- 
''erbial element of the second class. Can he traced, and ail that 
follows, is the complex predicate, of which, can he traced is the 
siuiple predicate, modified by to vices, and and all thai follovrs 
it; a compound adverbial element of the second class, of which 
vices or follies, the nouns of the base, are modified by which we 
have committed, a simple adjective element of the third class. 
It is also a simple declarative subordinate sentence, of which we 
ia the simple subject unmodified. Have committed which, is the 
compk-x predicate, of which, have comynitted is the simple predi- 
cate, modified by which, a simple objective element of the first 
class; also, the connective of the subordinate sentence. 

6. That he is dishonest is manifest, is a complex declarative 
sentence, of which, that he is dishonest is the simple subject, au 
element of the third class; also, a simple declarative subordinate 
sentence, ( f which that is an expletive, and he the simple subject, 
unmodified; is dibhonsat, is the simple predicate, unmodified, 
dishonest being the attribute, and is, the copula. 

7. My desire is that you may improve, is a complex declarative 
sentence, of which, m.y desire is the complex subject; of which, 
desire is the simple subject, modified by my, a simple adjective 
element of the first class. 

Is that you may improve, is the simple predicate, of which, is 
is the copula, and, that you may improve, is th? attribute; also, a 
simple declarative subordinate sentence, of which that is the con- 
nective subordinate, and you. the simple subject, unmodified. 
May improve, is the simple predicate, unmodified. 

78. 

COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

8. / expect that she will come^ hut I intend to return, is a com- 
pound declarative sentence, of which, I expect that she will come, 
is the leading logical declarative sentence, of which, /" is the 
simple subject, unm^.dified, and, expect that she will come, 
is the complex predicite.of yiWxch., expect is the simple predcate, 
modified by that she will come, a simple ebjective element of 
the third class; also a simple declarative subordinate sentence 
of which she is the simple subject, unmodified, and, will come. 



ADVANCED TEACUINQ. 173 

the simple predicate, unmodified. But I intend tc return, is 
tho coordinate simple doclarativo senteiice, of which but is the 
coordinate connective, and, / the simple subject, unmodified; 
and, intend to return, is themodified predicate, of which, intend 
\s the simple predicate, modified by, to return, a simple adver- 
bial element of the second class. 



79. 

WRITTEN ANALYSIS. 

Remark 1. Much time can be gained, in reci- 
fations. by adopting the following plan of exhibit- 
ing the analysis of sentences on the blackboard. 

Remark 2. Many scholars can be engaged, a< 
Dnce, on as many diflferent sentences assigned them, 
provided there is sufficient blackboard. If not, 
those who cannot be accommodated at the board, 
3an write their sentence in the analyzed form, on 
bheir slates, or on paper, which the teacher can ex- 
amine, in order, as he passes around the class. 

Remark 3. After having given a written analy- 
sis, of a sentence, on the board, the pupil should 
analyze it orally, and receive the criticism of the 
class and teacher. 

I have found the discipline of analysis much 
more vigorous and satisfactory, when the written 
and oral methods are combined, than when either 
is used alone. 

Remark 4. Besides, there is so much heauiy in 
the logical arrangement of a sentence, as presented 
to the mind, through the eye, that u would well 
repay the labor, even if it took more time ; but it 
does not. A class will accomplish more, in extent 
and thoroughness, in the same length of time, by 
first analyzing their sentences, on the board. 



17 4 



GRAMxMAR. 



Remark 5. 1 shall present the written analysis 
of the sentences, as analyzed orally, on page 171, 
et se.q. 

80. 

EXAMPLES OP WRITTEN ANALYSIS. 



l\ 



I 



SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

Parties | Both 



re pen . | jjggry^Qgj | themselves. 

I Spirits I vigorous | less 

\ rtould have shrunk | from dangers | such, 
bis 



intrepidity j ^^^^^^j 



did forsake 



misfortunes 



him 



the 



5^ 



at approach ( of death. 



COMPLEX SEN'TBNCES. 

f The 
chief 

, that 
\ bef^l 



can be traced 



ito vices j ( 
(and) > < 
[to] follies) ( 



iJ 



(That) 

he 

is dishonest 

manifest. 



in life, 
we 

have committed j ^^iH. 
desire | my 
(that) 
you 
may improve. 



COMPOUND SENTENCi. 

y (that 

*: (she (but) j I 

^^P ( will oomo j intend I to return 



81. 

EXPLANATIONS. 

1. Sentences and elements of the same rank, 
stand in the, same vertical column. Hence, in the 
analysis of a sentence, the principal elements stand 



r 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 175 

in the first column ; subordinate elements of the 
first degree stand in the second, and so on. 

2. To prevent a subordinate sentence from ap- 
pearini]^ like two elements, it is preceded by a brace. 

3. Words supplied, to make out a construction, 
are enclosed in brackets. 

4. AVords not forming a part of the construction, 
although expressed in the sentence, are enclosed 
in a parenthesis. Such words are conjunctions, and 
independent forms. 

5. Words having a double use, have a line 
drawn under them. Such words are relative pro- 
nouns, since they are used as connectives and pro- 
nouns ; also, conjunctive adverbs, ?jnce they are 
used both as connectives and modifiers. 

(3. Double relatives must be separated into their 
two parts, in written anaylsis ; since the antece 
ilent part belongs in the principal sentence, and 
the relative part, in the subordinate. 



ABRIDGMENT. 

DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS AND REMARKS. 

Abridgment. That part of analysis which 
treats of contracting sentences, by rejecting con- 
nectives, suppressing subjects of verbs, and chang- 
ing the verbs from the finite moods to infinitive? 
and participles. 

Abridoed Sentence. One whose verb is an in- 
finitive or participle. 

Substantive Abridged Sentence. One that is 
used as the subject or object of a verb. 
8* 



176 GRAMMAR. 

Adjective Abridged Sentence. Oue that is 
used to modify a noun, pronoun, or sul^stantivc 
clause 

Participial Abridged Sentence. One whose 
leading word of construction is a participle. 

Infinitive Abridged Sentence. One whose 
leadins: word of construction is an infinitive. 

Absolute Abridged Sentence. One whose 
feadinG: word of construction is the nominative 
case absolute. 

Method of Abridgment. Remove the con nee 
tive, change the finite verb to an infinitive or par 
ticiple, and suppress the subject, provided it is the 
same as that of the verb in the principal sentence. 

ORDER OF ANALYSIS. 

1st. Analyze in the abridged form. 2d. Expand 
the sentence by supplying the connective and sub- 
ject, and changing the mood of the verb to a finite 
mood. 3d. Analyze in the complete form. 

Remark. In written analysis, these two forms 
of the subordinate sentence, may be connected by 
a curving sign of equality. 

]\ToTE. — Teachers, who use Clark's Grammar, will find the 
various sentences classified and exhibited with great precisiou 
by the use of his System of Diagrams. 



( 



r 



PART IV. 

MF/niODS OF TEACHIiNG 
GEOGRAPHY. 




U- 



INTEODUCTION. 



PROPER AGE FOR COMMENCING THE STUDY 0? 
GEOGRAPHY. 

As soon hs the child is able to read well enough 
to obtain ideas from what he reads, in as diificult 
a class of sentences as those found in the primary 
Geography, proposed to be used, it is desirable that 
he have the advantages of the variety which the 
Geography will give to his reading lessons. It 
would be folly, of course, to set such a child to 
studying a book designed for higher classes. 

It is a great mistake to keep a child confined to 
one book, whether Spoiler, Eeader, or Geography; 
or to keep him confined to books entirely ; a slate 
and pencil arc indispensable concomitants of books, 
from the first. 

ORAL INSTRUCTION BEFORE THE BOOK. 

I may repeat here, what I said in reference to 
Grammar. No lesson should be required of a 
young pupil, in the text-book, till he has had a 
preliminary drill, and the teacher is satisfied that 
he can comprehend the subject, so far as the les« 
«?on in the text-book extend?. 

(1791 



180 dEOORAPHY. 

NECESSITY OF APPARATUS IN TEACHINQ 
GEOGRAPHY. 

Some teachers -suppose, that apparatus is only 
necessary in High Schools and Colleges ; others, 
that it does not belong to them to purchase it; 
and multitudes of others do not know what it is, 
and would not know what to do with it, if it were 
placed in their hands. This is obvious, from the 
manner in which the apparatus, furnished by the 
State of Ohio, has been abused, neglected and de- 
stroyed, in the large majority of schools, where it 
has been placed. " It is of no account," says one. 
" I don't know what to do with it," says another. 
" Take away your fly-traps," says a third. " Them 
things will do for play things; I don't know what 
other use to make on 'em," says the fourth; and so 
on through every variety of ignorance and stu- 
pidity. 

Of the twenty thousand dollars' worth of appa 
ratus supplied to the schools by the State of Ohio, 
if at this time all that remains in our country 
schools were put up at auction, to be bid for by 
the teachers who have used the apparatus, I doubt 
whether one hundred dollars would bo offered for 
it. Such is the lamentable ignorance prevalent 
among teachers in this direction^ that Normal In- 
stitutes should be established in every county, to 
be in session long enough to instruct every teach- 
er, at least, in the use of the blackboard and globe, 
and then no certificate should be granted to any 
one who could not show a good degree of facility 
in applying the illustrations. 



INTRODUCTION. ISl 

1 say, then, that a globe is indispensable to the 
correct teaching of primary classes in Geography. 
I know of a child who had learned Parley's little 
Geography, '* by heart," at school and could re])cat 
it from one end to the other, who, when she saw a 
Rmall globe, in her father's hand, as he brought it 
home, addressed him thus : " Pa, what is that 
round thing in your hand?" The father replied ; 
"It is a globe, Fannie." "A globe? What is 
that?" " Why it shows what shape the world 
is." "Why, Pa, is the world round like that?" 
" Hav'nt you repeated a hundred times, the 
world is round and like a ball flies swinirino; in 
the air?" " Oh, yes, Pa, but I never knew it 
before." 

If that girl's teacher had had a globe, she would 
not, probably, have known what use to make of it. 
A globe of the most convenient size only costs a 
dollar. If the teacher has n't a dollar to buy a 
globe, and cannot borrow it, he ought to make 
one, or make use of an orange or an apple ; or, if 
he cannot spare those, for such a purpose, he might 
use a piece of chalk, a potato, or his fist. 

OBJECTS TO BE AIMED AT IN TEACHING PRIMARY 
GEOGRAPHY 

1st. learning to Study. Study is necessary to 
any desirable progress in learning to read ; for if 
the scholar only reads while he is engaged in his 
class, he can only be familiarizing his eye with the 
forms of words some fifteen or twenty minutes, at 
most, during the day ; while the scholar who studieSf 



182 OEOGRAPHY. 

may be engaged in the same operation several 
liour^each day. The progress of the latter will be 
more than proportionally rapid and satisfaciory. 

2d. Learning to Draw. The use of the hand 
and eye, in drawing, is conceded, by all intelligent 
Educators, to be an important aim in the education 
of every person. The drawing of Maps, on the 
slate, blackboard or paper, is an easy and excellent 
introduction to the art. 

Map Drawing also imprints the local geography 
en the mind, more correctly and permanently than 
any other method ; it also affords the necessary va- 
riety to school exercises, to make them healthful 
and pleasant. 

3d. Learning to Read. The consideration of this 
object has been forestalled in discussing the others. 
I will, however, add, that since Geography may be 
made more interesting than any reading lesson, it 
will more thoroughly arouse the pupil to voluntary 
effort in the preparation of his lessons, which, of 
course, will secure more rapid advancement in intel- 
ligent and intelligible reading. 

4th. Learning Geography. 

This is a worthy object, but less in importance^ 
in my estimation, than any other mentioned, at the 
age at which a scholar should commence the study. 

METHODS OF PRELIMINARY DRILL. 

Many of the following pages will be given to the 
various plans to be adopted in preliminary drills, 
involving the use of the globe, of the blackboard, 
of the neighborhood and township; and of anv 

I 



INTRODUCTION. 



183 



travel that the scholars may have enjoyed, for il- 
lustration; also, of maps both small and large. 

METHODS OF CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 

The methods of conducting recitations have been 
BO fully explained and exemplified, in the preced- 
ing branches, that comparatively little attention 
will be given to them in Part IV. 

METHOD OF USING PART IV. 

The teacher will consult it, in his daily prep'iTa- 
tion for his classes. 

TEXT-BOOKS USED. 

Monteith & McNally's series of Geographies are 
highly recommended as the best now before the 
public ; and i shall refer to them continually, in 
the following pages, for the material of illustu.tion 
and exemplification in the methods described 

OBJECT LESSONS. 

In connection with the lessons in Geography, it 
IS well for a teacher to make use of various objects^ 
not only for illustration, such as globe and maps, 
but of common things, such as corn, wheat, ap- 
ples, woods of various kinds, etc.; also to b/ing 
before the class, the productions of foreign coun 
tries, or to induce the scholars to do so. P.uch 
objects serve by suitable conversation, to aiouse 
thought, to train children to observe, and to con- 
nect hook lessons, with existing TiCNoe 



METHOD (F TEACHING GEOGKAPHY TO 

PKIMARY CLASSES. 

1. 

PRELIMINARY REMARKS AND EXPLANATIONS. 

Remark 1. The class should be able to read the 
simple style of the Primary Geography used, ia- 
'elllgentli/; not necessarily, fluently. They should 
all be provided with some Primary Geography, and 
;i)l with the same kind. 

Remark 2. The teacher should be provided 
with a five-inch globe, at least. Such a globe, 
mounted on a stand, can be purchased for one dol- 
lar. It would be well for the teacher to provide 
himself also with maps of the town, township, 
county and state, in which his school is situated. 

Remark .3. It is understood that Geography is 
the first branch of science, to which the pupil is 
introduced ; that it comes in connection with a 
Second or Third Reader, but does not displace it. 

2. 

LESSON I. 

First Step — How to secure Books. The 
teacher havins; called a reading class to the recita- 
tion seat, asc3rtains how many have Geographies, 
and how many have the right kind. He finds the 
children wide awake with the idea of taking up a 
(184) 



■ —. ' 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 185 

new study, in a new book. It is oiJy necessary 
for him to say, tliat tliose who can obtain the book 
used by the chis3, can study Geography, and that 
it will be iiiipovsible tor others to join the class. 
Pie will then inquire how many there are who 
think they cannot get the book. If any, he should 
visit the parents, or write a note and send it by 
the hand of the pupil, who will use all a child's 
eloquence, in connection with the note, to obtain 
the desired book. The child will not fail, unless 
the parent is absolutely too poor oi too drunken to 
purchase it; in which case, the teacher should sup- 
ply the book himself, or apply to the Directors, or 
other benevolent individuals, to do it. No child 
will be permitted to remain behind his class, from 
poverty, by the True Teacher. 

3. 

Second 8tep — ExciTiNa an Interest. Teacher. 
fou have new Geographies, some of you ; by to- 
morrow, I hope you will all have them. You see 
it is full of pictures and maps ; and reading that 
tells you about the pictures and explains the maps. 
Geography is a very interesting study. ^V"hy, see ; 
here is the picture of the Natural Bridge, which is 
ten times as high as this house, and is one solid 
rock. A boy once climbleil to the top of it, by 
cutting steps, with his jack-knife, into the rock. 
When he got up so high that he could n't jump 
down, he tried to go down by his steps, and 
oould n't do it, without falling; then all that he 
could (1.1. was to try to cut his way to tlie top of the 
bridge, several hundral feet. Do you suppose he 



186 



GEOGRAPHY. 



ever reached the lop? He did, and all the people, 
for miles, had collected on the bridge to see him. 
Then, here is a picture of Bunker Hill Monu- 
ment, where the British soldiers were mowed 
down by the bullets of American farmers and me- 
chanics, when the British wanted to make slavct^ 
of them. Here also, are beautiful pictures of a 
o:reat many fine buildings and large cities. By 
studying Geography, you will find out all about 
*hem. Ts not Geography an interesting study? 

4. 

Third Step — Explanation of Maps. Teacher. 
Now, I want to show you about these maps, that 
are painted so prettily. See, here is the map of 
the Western Hemisphere. How many can tell me 
what a map is for? [Hands rise.] Well, John, 
what do you think a map is for? John. (^Hesltat- 
ingli/.) Maps show how the countries look. 
[Several hands spring up.] Teacher. Isaac. 
Isaac. I don't think the countries look that way, 
ail red and yellow. Teacher. No ; the country is 
generally green in the summer. Maps are not 
designed to show the color of countries, but their 
shape on the surface of the earth. Here, I'll 
draw a map of our school yard for you, on the 
blackboard. [Teacher draws.] See, here is where 
the front fence rnns ; here are the side fences. 
Now, where shall I put the school-house? Here? 
Where the wood-house? Here? And, here the 
pump stands; and here the outhouse, and here 
the walk to the gate, etc., etc. In the same wa_y I 
oould draw a map of the town, and could shew 



PRIMARY TEACHINU. 187 

you, on the mi,p, where each one of you lives, 
llow many would like to learn to draw maps? 
[All hands come up. J AVell ; I will show you to- 
morrow. 

5. 

Fourth Step — The Globe. Here is a Globe. 
It is designed to show the shape of the Earth, in 
which we life. You see it has maps on it. Now, 
I can show you where the country is, in this 
ylobe, on which you live. See, here is North 
America, and here are the Great Lakes, and just 
about there, [sticking a pin,] is where you are now. 
This globe is five inches in diameter, or through 
it ; and fifteen inches, or a little more than a foot, 
in circumference, or around it. How large do you 
suppose this great ball is, on which we stand? 
(^Stamjiing.) Why, it is eight thousand miles 
through it, and twenty-five thousand miles around 
it, and it takes a whole year to travel round it. 
Perhaps, some one of you knows some person that 
has sailed round the world. 

G. 

Fifth Step — Assigning a Lesson. Teacher. 
You may now open your books, those of you that 
have books, to this picture of the Earth, and we 
will see if we can read Lesson I. I will read the 
fine print, and you may read the coarse print. 

All look on, now, and see if I read right. 
[Teacher roads.] " What is the planet, on which 
we live, called?" John you may read the coarse 
print. [John rear/.s,] " It is called the Earth." 
Teacher. Very well. You see that the coarse 



188 GEOGRAPHY. 

print an;E\vers the question in fine print. I will 
read the next question. [Reads.] "What is the 
shape of the Earth?" Mary, you may read the an- 
swer. Mjri/ reads. " It is very nearly round." 
Teacher. Now Samuel, you may read the next 
question. Sumuel reads. "Do we live on the out 
side or inside of the Earth?" Teacher. Susan, you 
may read the answer. Sn.^'aii reads. " On the out- 
side." Teacher. Very well. Now you all see how 
to read this. I wish you to read over the questions 
and answers, so many times to yourselves, when you 
go to your seats, that you can give me the an 
Bwers without looking on the book, when you come 
to me, to recite to-morrow. How many of you think i 
that you will be able to answer all the questions in 
Lesson I, by to-morrow morning? [All hands rise.] 
Very well. You m ly take your books home to-night, 
if you have a mind to, and study your lesson at 
home; I shall not be surprised if you get two les- 
Eons, but I shall only hear you recite one. You 
may go to your seats now, in order. 

7. 

LESSON TI. 

First Step — Have all Books? Teacher.— 
How many have books today? [Book^ rise.] If 
any have not yet got the books, the teacher decides 
in his own mind, how they may be provided, and 
informs the scholars deficient, how it can be done. 

8. 

Second Step — Recitation. The teacher ha.ing 
enrolled the names of the pupils in his register, 
calls from the register the name of one pupil ; say, 



PRIMARY TEACIIKVG. 1 Sl« 

Amanda. [Amanda rises.] TearJicr. [With 
Grlobe in his hand.] "What is the phmet, on 
which we live, called?" Aiwiniln. " It is called 
the Earth." Teacher. Very well. Amanda i^ 
excused. James, [James rises.] " What is the 
shape of the Earth?" James. "It is round.'" 
[Hands rise.] Teacher. Sarah, Sarah. " It is 
very nearly round." Teacher. Right, Sarah. 
James is excused. 

Remark. Scholars, when oflferiiig criticisms or 
corrections, do it sitting;; but never without per- 
mission from the teacher. 

Teacher. I will ask you all a question not in the 
book. Is the earth round, like a plate, or like the 
stove pipe, or like this ball? How many can tell? 
[Hands rise.] Maria. Maria. It is round like 
a ball. Teacher. Then it is a ball, is n't it? How 
deep must a hole be, to go through this globe, 
right through the center. [No hands rise.] — 
Teacher. Five inches. I5ut how deep would a 
well have to be to go down through the Earth, 
right through the center? [No hands rise.] How 
far through did I say the Earth was, yesterday? 
[Some liands rise.] Henry. Henry. Eight hun- 
dred miles. Teacher. Eight thousand miles ; 
and how long would it take to go through such a 
well or tunnel, if you could go in a railroad car, 
with the speed of thirty miles an hour? Well, it 
would take more than twenty days, traveling twelve 
hours a day. That would be a long journey, in a 
tunnel, would n't it? 

Thus the lesson is pursued, by proposing the 



\ 

_, I 



190 GEOGRATt'V. 

questions, in the book, till all tbt sjholar.A have 
been readied, one or more times. If any j^cbolar 
fail on one question, he is tried on another ; and 
then on another, till the teacher satisfies himself 
as to the amount of study the scholar has be- 
stowed on his lesson. He is then graded, accord- 
ingly, in the register. 

9. 

Third Step — Drawin'g on Slates. Teacfier. 
I wish you to draw this map of the Western Hem 
isphere, on your slates, for a part of your nex^. les- 
son ; and bring your slates when you come to re- 
cite. I will draw it for you, on the blackboard. 
The teacher first draws the circle by taking p 
string as a radius, holding one end, in one hand 
stationary, on the board ; the other end, with a 
piece of chalk, in the other hand, he carries around 
on the board, forming the circle. He then draws 
the continent, with the general divisions, prints 
the names, and makes a dot, in a small figure, rep- 
resenting his own State, in the map. The children 
are thus encouraged to do what they see done, 
and perhaps will even try to excel the master, in 
drawing a map. He requires them only to draw 
the outline for the first le&son. 

10. 

Fourth Step — Dismissing the Class. The next 
lesson being assigned, and the grades of the class 
being read aloud for their encouragement or incite- 
ment, they are dismissed f cm the recitation seat, 
in order, by calling their numbers, as TTritten in 
the class rejiister. 



PRIMARY TEACIIINfi. 191 

11. 

LESSON III. 

First Step. The teacher examines the sLites, 
points out the excellences and errors of each draw- 
ing ; gives his attention to the evenness of the 
curve; the sh:ipe and position of the countries; 
the size and regularity of the letters in the print- 
ing, lie finds several of the class who could not 
make a circle, iind so failed of doing anything. 
Instead of scolding tliom, or making any discour 
aging comparisons, he takes a slate and makes a 
circle ; then tells all the scholars to make one. He 
then proceeds to draw the map, on the slate, ro- 
({uesting them all to follow him on their own slates 
a'< he draws, holding his slate before the class. 

Thus by encouragement, by aid judiciously 
given, map-drawing is fairly commenced, and will 
not be laid aside, till the study of Geography is 
abandoned. 

It will be well to include the consideration of 
map-drawing, in the grading. 

Second Step — Recitation. 

Third Step — Assigning the next Lesson, in- 
cluding the drawing of the same map, with the 
gulfs and lakes, in addition to the outline of the 
continent. 

12. 

LESSON IV. 

First Step- -liiX a mi nation of Drawings. 

Second Step — Recitation. This recitation 
should be conducted, with the globe in the hand 
of the teacher ; and the scholars should be called 
9 



J i 



192 GEOGRAPIIV. 

upon to decide which is fand and which is water, 
on the globe ; also which is the Western and which 
is the P^astern Hemisphere, and the Northern and 
the Southern Hemisphere, on the globe. 

In fact, the globe should be constantly in use, 
in every recitation, to give correct ideas of the rel- 
ative size of countries ; their true direction from 
each other, which never can be obtained from maps. 

Third Step — Assigning next Lesson, including 
another drawing lesson. It may be the same map, 
with the lakes, seas, islands, and all the details as 
far as given. 

13. 

LESSON V. 

First Step — Examination of Maps. 

Second Step — Recitation. 

Third Step — Points of Compass. The teacher 
should be careful, that the scholars get clear and 
correct ideas of direction, not only on the map, but 
on the Earth itself. He should begin with the 
school-room, and have the class understand defi- 
nitely the four cardinal points of the compass, in 
the school-room. The pupils should obtain them 
from the risins; and settin"; sun. He should 
nlso use the globe, in this connection, and show 
how these directions lie on the globe. 

Having explained the eight most importar»t 
points of compass, in connection with the globe, 
the teacher proceeds, somewhat thus, in question- 
ing the class. 

Teacher. (^Holding the globe in his hand.^ — 
Which way is Njrth America, from S )uth An er- 



I I 

I 1 



n 



1 ! 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 193 

ica, on this globe? You may all answer together. 
How many of you cin point towards South Amer- 
ica, on the Earth? As many as can, may do it. 

Which way is Europe from North America, on 
the globe? Now, if you were about to start for 
Europe, which way would you travel? 

Which way is Asia from North America? 

The scholars give various answers. One says 
East ; another. West ; another, it is on the other 
side, etc. 

Teacher. You may point now, if you can, to- 
wards Asia. 

The class have the same difficulty in pointing as 
in telling the direction. 

Teacher. If a fly were walking on this globe, 
which way would it go from North America to 
r3ach Asia. All together. 

Class. East, West, (/« coldfusion.) 

Teacher. Would it not reach Asia, if it should 
walk, continuously, in any direction? East, West, 
North or South? 

Then, which way would you go on the Earth's 
surface, to reach Asia? 

]^ut, you may now point directly towards Asia, 
without reference to travelinjr. 

Most of the scholars point downwards. 

Teacher. Some of you are right ; Asia is on 
the other side of the Earth, but not directly 02)po- 
site to us. 

If a hole were dug down through the Earth, 
where would it come out? 

Class. In Asia. In the ocean. 



191 UEOdRAPUY. 

Teacher. Some of you are right and some 
wrong. A hole would not come out in Asia, if 
dug directly down ; it would have to be inclined 
somewhat towards the north. Do you think a 
person, in going through such a hole or tunnel, 
would come out head foremost or feet foremost in 
Asia? Such a hole will never be made, but the 
people, in Asia, stand with their heads pointing 
nearly in the same direction that our feet do. 

Thus, no pains should be spared to connect the 
vjorch of the hook with the ideas of existing things. 

The great and crying evil of teaching, is, that 
hook knowledge is kept isolated from real knowl- 
edge ; and the evil, generally, begins with the first 
lessons of the child, and ends with the last lessons 
of the collegiate graduate. 

14. 

LESSON VI. 

Conclusion of Primary Teaching. I shall 
conclude these explanations of Primary Teaching, 
by a few general remarks. 

Remark 1. The most common phenomena, as 
the risino: and settina: of the sun, should be ex- 
plained to a primary class, from time to time, in 
order to give interest and variety to the study. 

Remark 2. The globe should be kept con- 
otantiy in hand, that no erroneous impressions 
may be derived from maps, with regard to the 
true position of places. 

Remark 3. The same map should be assigned 
to the class, for drawing lessons, several days in 
puccession. They should only be required to draw 



PRIMARY TEACrilNO, J 95 

the outline, on the first day. Then, in successive 
days, they should make new drawiju's. embracing 
all the work of tlic previous day-^ ;ind should 
add, in order, first the larger bodioi ..-f water, and 
islands, if any; secondly, rivers and mountains; 
thirdly, boundaries of political divisions; and, 
lastly, localities of cities and towns. The printing 
of names should keep pace with the other work. 

Remark 4. The drawings may be made on pa- 
per, alter a suflicient practice on slates. Drawing, 
of course, will not be confined to maps; though 
every map in the book should be so learned, that 
the scholars can go to the blackboard and draw it, 
without looking on the book, at all, while drawing ii. 
Remark 5. The teacher should instruct the 
class to look out the pronunciation of the geo- 
graphical names in the vocabulary, at the end of 
the book. 

Remark G. Frequent reviews should be taken ; 
sometimes, by the maps; sometimes, by outlines, 
prepared by the teacher; sometimes, by asking 
promiscuous questions on the matter passed over 
in one week. Scholars should have opportunity 
to prepare themselves for reviews, a& well as for 
advanced lessons. A wide awake teacher will ex- 
cite more interest in the review lesson thrn in the 
advance lessons 



I 
1 1 

I i 

i i 



METHOD OF TEACHIXG INTERMEDIATE 
CLASSES. 

15. 

PRELIMINARY REMARKS AND EXPLANATIONS. 

Remark 1. The class should be able to read 
the style of the Intermediate Geography, intelli- 
gently and fluently. They should be able to write 
a legible hand, with fiicility ; and should be train- 
ed in the use of the dictionary, in ascertaining the 
pronunciation, spelling and meaning of words- 
They should, of course, all be provided with dic- 
tionaries, either Webster's Academic, or Worces- 
ter's Comprehensive. 

Remark 2. The teacher should be provided 
with a five inch globe, and a set of Outline Map^ 
Instead of Outline Maps, the teacher tan make 
use of any maps whatever, of large size, situated 
so far from the class, that the names f'jnnot be 
recognjy.od. The beautiful Maps in McNally's Geo. 
graphy are well adapted to this use. The pupil can 
draw a series of outline maps of a larger size, 
making use of McNally's maps for his guide (omit- 
ting all (he small cities and towns), and introducing 
the course of rivers and all bonndaiy lines — and 
when finished, tack them to the wall, or blackboard, 
fot class exercises. 
(190^ 



SECONDARY TEACHING. 197 

IG. 

Rt'niiirk 3. It is supposed, that those v/liu 
?tu(ly Intermediate Geography, are also study Iiil: 
Arithmetic, Kcading and Spellini^. 

Remark 4. In graded schools, a half hour 
should be devoted to this recitation. In ungraded 
district schools, not less than fifteen minutes are 
required to arouse any degree of ii;tcrest that will 
be profitable in the least. 

Remark 5. Some teachers require their pupils 
to purchase "Topic Books," at an expense nearly 
half as great as that of the Geography. I think all 
the advantages of Topic Books can be secured 
without them, and more. Instead of the pupil'a 
using a Topic Book, when he is learning his les- 
son, and reciting, he will do better to write on pa- 
per, or on his slate, the topics of his lesson, when 
he is studying; and use them in the recitation, in 
the manner described below. All speculations iii 
books, and, especially, in those which are not in- 
dispensable, are likely to raise complaints from 
parents, and to impair a teacher's influence. 
Should a teacher introduce any books whatever, 
he will find it a matter of economy to furnish them 
to his scholars at cost. 

17. 

LESSON I. 
FiRHT Step — Topir Lists. Tfarlier. My ycun? 
friends, we commence, to-day, in a new Geogra- 
phy. You will pursue a very different course, in 
this work, from what you did in studying the Pri 
mary Geography. I was accustomed to ask 3^ou 



198 GEOGRAPHY. 

the quevstions, in that book, and you to answer 
thorn, in the very words of the book. I shall not 
ask the questions, in this book, but wish you to 
prepare Tone Lists, when you study your lessons, 
and to recite your lessons from them. I will write 
the first one for you, on the board. [He writes.] 
(hograpliyf Earth? Eartlts Surface? Land? 
WaUrf Natural Divisumsf Artificial Divisions? 
Political Divisions? Mathematical Divisions? Phys- 
ical Geography? Includes ichat? Political Gcogra- 
jdty? Includes nhat? Mathematical Geography? 
Includes whaff Divisions of Geography? I wil. 
let this Topic List remain on the board, and you 
may copy it, on to loose paper, or into your writ- 
inir books, in a very neat style, and study your 
.esson by it. Some of the topics you will find 
discussed or explained, in the coarse print, in the 
answers of the book; and some of them, in the 
fine print, in the questions. 

18. 
Second Step — Explanation of the Method of 
REi^^TiNG. Teacher. Children, when you come 
to recite, I shall ask you no questions. But, 1 
wiibh each one to bring his Topic List, and to re- 
cite from that. I shall give each of you an equal 
amount of time, to recite in • and we will see who 
can ^p over the most ground, and in the most cor 
recv manner. 

19. 
Third Step — Concert Exercise on Map and 
Globe. Teacher. We will now take a short exer- 
oiso on an Outline Map. 



r.-- 

SECONDARY TEACIIINO. 199 

The teacher places a Map of the World, in n 
conspicuous position, and calls on the class to go 
over with him, in a concert exercise, the principal 
bodies of land and water ; also, the Hemispheres, 
Kastcrn and Western, Northern and Southern. In 
the concert exercise, the class give each name 
twice, as they proceed; that, at the second pronun- 
ciation of the word, all may join in. 

When it shall be found that all can harmonize, 
ill the concert exercise, as the teacher only points 
to the different localities, a scholar may be called 
on to give the localities, pointing for himself. 
Then the class may go over the same concert ex- 
ercise, while a pupil points. 

Then the globe may be used, instead of the map, 
for the same concert exercises ; the teacher holding 
it ill his hand Thus the time allotted may be oc- 
cupied. The teacher, having designated the extent 
of the lesson agnin. dismisses the class, in order. 

20. 

LESSON II. 

First Step — Division of Time. The teacher 
necfh at least a half hour for this recitation. If 
his school is well classified, he can allow this 
amount of time; possibly more. According to the 
number of scholars in the class, and the time of 
the recitation, he should assign, not less than one, 
nor more than two minutes, for each scholar to re- 
cite in. There is a great advantage in giving a 
definite time to each scholar. It excites the schol- 
ar to a more thorough preparation; to a more rapid 
utterance; to greater activity of thought; toagreat- 
9* 



200 GEOGRAPHY. 

cr accuracj^ of expression ; all this from the fact> 
that lie is graded on what he accomplishes, in the 
time assigned him, and on the manner in which he 
accomplishes it. 

21. 

SEcoNn Step — The Recitation by Topics. The 
teacher, having the names of his class enrolled, calls 
on a pupil, from his register, to commence the reci- 
tation. He commences with the Topic List, and 
goes as far, and as well as he is able, till his time 
expires ; when the class are called on for criticism. 
All scholars, having criticisms to offer, raise their 
hands. The teacher gives permission to some one, 
who is least inclined to offer criticism, to do so. 
Then, on others, till all errors, of the pupil reciting, 
shall have been reached. The pupil, having re- 
cited, is then graded. The teacher calls on another 
scholar to go on with the recitation, commencing 
with the topics where the first scholar left off; and 
so on, with other pupils, over and over the Topic 
List till all of the scholars are called on; or until the 
time is spent. The grading shows, wdiich scholars 
are called on. If any are omitted, they should, of 
30urse, be first, in order, at the next recitation. 

22. 

Third Step — Concert Exercise, on Map and 
Globe. If time should remain, after the recitation 
from the topics assigned, it may always be employed 
to good advantage, in concert exercise, as before 
described. Indeed, it will be well to reserve a part 
of the time, after a few of the first recitations by top 






r 



SECONDARY TEACHING. 201 

ic8, for this purpose, even though all the scholars 
are not called on to recite, at each recitation. 

Remark. Scholars will be inclined to mention 
every topic, before amplifying it. This is awk- 
ward. They should proceed with the subject mat- 
ter, without mentioning the topics, unless espe- 
cially requested to do so. 

In this way, they soon become able to pursue a 
oontinued and systematic course of thought, orally; 
improving, from day to day, in rapidity of utter- 
ance, precision of language, and clearness of ex- 
pression. 

23. 

FouKTn Step — Assigning a Lesson. The teach- 
er will do well, for a few of the first lessons, to write 
down the topics, on the board, which the class can 
copy, after they take their seats, provided they sit 
in the recitation room ; if not, the teacher should 
write the topics, on the board, before the recitation 
commences; that the scholars may copy them, dur- 
ing the recitation. The topics, thus used from 
day to day, should, each of them, be written neatly, 
in a blank book, procured for the purpose. 

Scholars will thus form, for themselves, a Topic 
Book, which will be used also in reviews. In doing 
it, particular attention should be given to spelling, 
capital letters, neatness of arrangement, and econ- 
omy in the use of paper. The teacher should have 
regular times for examining the Topic Books. If 
other books cannot be obtained by the pupil, apart 
of the writing book mny be set apart for this pur- 
pose ; though a few sheets of paper, I'olded twice, 



202 GEOGRAPHY. 

and properly covered and stitched, make a more 
convenient book. 

24. 
lesson iii. 
First Step — Recitation by Topics. 
Second Step — Explanation of Terms, in Math- 
ematical Geography. The globe should be used, 
for this purpose. The diurnal and annual revolu- 
tions can be shown as going on, simultaneously, 
by suspending the globe by a string, from the 
hand; or better, from a nail driven into the ceiling. 

25. 

lesson IV. 

First Step — Recitation by Topics. 
Second Step — Explanation of Points of Com- 
pass. The points of compass should be explained 
by the rising and setting sun, by the use of the 
globe ; also, by practice on the surf^ice of the Earth 
itself, by requiring scholars^to point in the direction 
of various countries, as ascertained from the globe. 

26. 
lesson v. 

First Step — ^Recitation by Topics. 

Second Step^Explanation of Terms, used in 
next lesson, by the use of the globe. 

Third Step — Concert Exercise on the globe, 
of mathematical points, (poles,) lines, and divisions. 
The teacher conducts this, by holding the globe in 
his hand, and pointing with his pencil to the sev- 
eral localities of such points, lines, and divisions, 
while the class proceed, in concert, to name them, 
The class may also add, in the concert exercise, the 
lengths of diameter and circumference in miles 



( I 



8ECONDAIIV TE.ACIIiNG. 203 

27. 

LESSON VI. 

F1R8T Step — Recitation by Topics 

Second Step — Explanation of Zonks, by the 
globe. 

Renidrk. Zones can hardly be well explained, 
or understood, from the map alone ; the same is 
true of meridians and parallels of latitude. 

Teacher. I wish to show you about the Zones ; 
why they are marked, as you find them on the map, 
here. You notice, that this globe is supported by 
an inclined wire, representing its axis. It is in- 
clined 23^ degrees to the plane of this table. So 
the Earth is inclined 23^ degrees to an extended 
plane, passing through its own centre as it goes on 
in its orbit, and the center of the sun. If the 
Earth's axis stood upright, there would be neither 
zones nor seasons — no summer nor winter here, 
nor anywhere else, on the Earth. 

T will now suppose my hat to be the Sun, as it 
stands here on the table. This globe represents the 
Earth, in its orbit or path, as it passes around the 
Sun. I will place the axis so that it shall incline 
towards the north, and place the globe in the eastern 
part of its orbit. [The teacher takes a position east 
of the table, with the globe in his hand, inclined 
towards the north.] Now, you will see, that the 
Sun, my hat there, would shine equally, on both 
poles; but as the Earth passes on towards the 
northern part of its orbit, keeping its axis always 
Inclined towards the north, the Sun does not shine 
on both the north and the south pole. When it 



204 GEOGRAPHY. 

arrives at the northern part of its orbit, the axig 
inclines directly away from the Sui , and since the 
Sun shines only on half the globe at once, it can- 
not reach the north pole with its rays of light and 
heat, but they fall short of it, 232- degrees ; just as 
much as the axis is inclined. They also pass over 
beyond ilw south pole, 23^ degrees. By var3'^ing 
the inclination, you can see this more plainly. If 
the axis lies down flat, the Sun shines on the south- 
ern hemisphere only, and its rays do not strike 
north of the equator; that is, they do not come 
within 90 degrees of the north pole, because the 
axis is now inclined away from the Sun, 90 degrees. 
Again ; if the axis stands upright, you can see that 
the Sun's rays would reach the north pole ; that is, 
since there is no inclination, the rays do not fsll 
short of either pole or go over either pole. You 
will then perceive, that just as much as the Earth's 
axis is inclined, just so much will the sun fail of 
reaching one pole, while it shines just as much 
over the other. You will notice, too, that this pin, 
[the teacher should insert the pin in the direction 
of a radius of the globe,] inserted into the globe, at 
the southern tropic, 23|- degrees from the (Xjuator, 
will have the Sun directly over its head, when the 
Earth is at the northern part of its orbit. 

I will now carry the globe around to the western 
part of its orbit, and will stick another pin into the 
globe, at the equator. You now see, that the Sun 
is overhead, at the equator, but as the Earth passes 
on towards the south, the pin will be inclined away 
irom the Sun. The Earth is now at the southern 



SECOND.vRY TEACHING. 205 

point of its orbit, and I will stick a pin in at the 
northern tropic; and you see that its head points 
directly towards the Sun. Now, these two piii-^ 
inserted at the tropics are at the greatest distan'.-o 
north and south, where the Sun can be over the 
heads of the people, on the Earth. If the Earth's 
axis were more, or less, inclined, this would not be so. 

All that part of the Earth's surface, then, be- 
tween the tropics, has the Sun directly overhead, 
sometime during the year, and hence, is the hottest 
part of the Earth, and is called the torrid, or burn- 
ing zone. Those parts around the poles, within a 
circle, 23| degrees from the 'poles, since the rays 
of the Sun do not reach them, at all, during some 
part of the year, are very cold, and are called 
frigid or frozen zones ; while these larger belts, 
between the torrid and frigid zones, are called tem- 
perate zones. 

Third Step — Assigning the Lesson. 

28. 
lesson vii. 

First Step — Recitation by Topics. 

Second Step — Questions on the explanation of 
the Zones, as given yesterday. 

Teacher. Class, how much is the Earth's axis 
inclined? How many can tell? All who can, may 
raise their hands. [Hands rise.] Teacher. Jane. 
Jane. Twenty-three and a half degrees. Teacher. 
How many think Jane is right? [Nearly all hands 
rise.] How many think she is wrong? [No hands 
rise.] Well, Isaac, don't you know any thing about 
it? Isaac. No, sir; I forgot. Teacher. I hope 



20H 



(tEOCiRAl'IIY. 



you will try to remember, now. haic. I don't 
know what degrees mean. Teacher. That was 
explained some time ago; but [ will show you 
again. [He draws a circle, on the board, and di- 
vides it circumference into four parts.] Each one 
of these parts is divided into 90 parts, which are 
called degrees; so any circle, here on the globe, or 
off from it, is divided into four times 90 degrees, or 
360 degrees. Now, how many of the class can 
tell me what a degree is? fHands rise.] Teacher. 
John. John. A degree is a 360th part of a circle. 
Teacher. Very well. Isaac, can you tell me now, 
what degrees are? Isaac. Yes, sir ; degrees are 
3G0th parts of a circle. Teacher. And, how many 
of these degrees is the Earth inclined? Imac. — 
Twenty three and a half. Teacher. [Turning the 
iilobc so that its axis is horizontal.] Can any of 
you tell me how much the Earth's axis is inclined 
nov/r* [No hands rise.] Teacher. I will show 
you. [Taking the globe from the stand.] Now 
the axis is not inclined at all, as it stands up- 
right. Now it is inclined 23|^ degrees ; now 45 
degrees. Now it is turned down, one quarter of 
the wav around, or 90 decrees. If it is turned 
entirely round, it makes the circuit of 360 degrees, 
thus. . Teacher. How many can tell me how wide 
the torrid zones are? [All hands rise.] Teacher. 
Sarah. Sarah. Twenty-three and a half degrees. 
Teacher. How many agree with Sarah? [Some 
hands rise.] Look at the globe, and see if the tor- 
rid zones do not extend 23^ degrees north, and 23^ 
degrees south of the equator. 



SECONDARY TEACHING. 



207 



ThuB, the teacher will reach the scholars mis- 
taken notions, and chase them away, one after an- 
other; and he will find it necessary, to repeat the 
process, all along, or he inculcates more error than 
truth, even though he understands his subjects 
well, and explains them with clearness and accu- 
racy. 

Third Step — Assigning a Lesson for Keview, 
BV Topics. This review should extend overall the 
ground thus far passed over. 

29. 

LESSON VIII. 

First Step — Recitation of Review Lesson. 

Second Step — Assigning an Advance Lesson 
in divisions of land and water. 

Teacher, I have written out the topic lists, by 
which you can study and recite your next lesson 

topic list for natural divisions of land. 



Continent, 

Island, 

Peninsula, 



n 

c I 

^ ^ Istlimu?, 



j Hdw situated? 
/ llow surrounded? 

Mow situated? 

II"W surrounded? 

How sitnatcd? 

Hdw surmuiided? 

Connects wliat? 

Lies between what? 



Cape, 
Mountain, 



I 



Volcano, 

Hill, 

Valley, 

Desert, 

\ Projects from what? ^u 

\ Projects into what? ^^^^^y ^^ 

\ Whore situated? 

I Extending in what 

[direction? 



I Crater? 
/ Materials 
[thrown >utJ 



Coast? 



Teacher. In studying your lesson, by the topic 
list, you will learn the definitions of all the natural 
divisions, as continents, islands, etc.; then you may 
look out three such divisions, on your map, and 
describe them as the topic list requires. 

For instance, when you come to Isthmus, you 



208 GEOGRAPHY. 

will learn the definition as you find it in the book. 
Then you will find an isthmus on the map of the 
world, or any other map, and describe it, by telling 
what two bodies of land it connects, and what two 
bodies of water it lies between. Then find two 
more, and prepare yourselves to describe them, in 
the same way; and so of all the natural divisions 
of land. 

You may also, each one, prepare yourselves to 
drav7, on the board, without any map before you, 
some continent, island, peninsula and cape; so 
that the rest of the class can tell what division you 
have drawn. You will practice in drawing these 
on your slate. 

30. 

LESSON IX. 

First Step. The teacher wdll assign some kind 
of natural division of land, to each pupil, for draw- 
ins; on the board. If the board is not large 
enough, some of the pupils may use slates. 

Second Step. While the class are thus engaged 
in drawing, the teacher will call on individuals, in 
succession, from his register, to recite their lesson 
from the topic list, the scholar having the topic list 
in hand, but using it as little as possible. 

Third Step. AVhen all have thus recited, return- 
ing to their drawings, as they are excused, from 
the topic list, each drawing may be examined thus: 

Taking, for instance, the drawing of some one, 
who was required to draw an Inland, the teacher 
Bays: How^ many can tell what island? As many 
as can, may raise the hand. [Hands rise "] Teach' 



SECONDARY TEACHING. 200 

cr. Mary. Jf>ny. Madaoascar. Tmrlirr. How 
many a-^rec with Mary? [Hands rise.] How many 
disa.ixrce? [Hands rise.] Susan, what do you think 
it is? Sumn. I don't know ; I don't think it is 
Madagascar. It runs East and West ; Madauascar 
runs North and South. Teacher. Well, Henry, 
you drew this : what did you desiun it for? I/enr//. 
Cuba. Teacher. It is quite similar to Cuba, both 
m direction and shape. In this way, each drawin^^ 
may be examined and criticised. 

:n. 

F[RST Step — AVriting Topic List. 







s 












C 







H 
















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< 






rt 


o 


■7"^* 


.J 




a) 

-5 


1 




c 


s 


3^ 




o 




— 


OS- 


i: 




zi 


^ 


.— w 


= j= 


ts 




-. *- 


!- 


S 


if 


r^ 


CO 


S-i 


■^'•'^' 


® > 


rs 




.> 


j: 


c 


c« 


^ 


2; 

o 

CO 

> 


i2 


in 
o 


~ a 
.i 5 


3 


03 



a 


V — 








3 ~ 


•— ■ 




















-- .tt 


u 






W 


< 




5 


o 

c 
c 


rt 


J 






Xi 










o 


'& 












i^ 



c^* c; o 



O ^ « 3 

I- C 'A 

f- ' — . — 







= 












.5 S 




C 03 

— 


^ 


it 


rtl 


.1 


i2 ^ 
1.1 






a 
a 



o 



t4 "3 



o 

O O 

.a 72 




210 GEOGRAPHY. 

You will pursue the same course, in preparing 
this lesson, with these topics, as with those of yes- 
terday ; also, in drawing. 

32. 

LESSON X. 

First Step — Assigning Divisions of Water 
FOR Drawing. 

Second Step — Recitation. 

Third Step — Assigning a Lesson. You will 
next take a lesson on the Map of North America. 
I wish you to practice, in drawing North America, 
so that you can draw the boundaries of all the 
countries in it, and locate the capitals. You need 
not draw the bodies of water any farther than they 
form boundaries. 

You may also prepare yourselves to give the 
boundaries of the countries, from the outline map, 
either before you have drawn them, or after you 
have drawn them ; also, to give the name of the 
capital of each country. 

33. 

LESSON XI. 

First Step — Drawing the Map of North 
America, either on the boara oi on slates. 

Second Step — Recitation. While the class 
are generally engaged in drawing, individuals are 
called on, successively, to give the boundari^os of 
North America, and each of the countries; also, 
the capital of each. 

Third Step — Assigning a Lesson. Teacher. 
For your next lesson, you may practice, in draw- 
ing the outline of North America, and the princi- 



SECONDARY TEACHING. 211 

pal islandii, peninsulas, capes, and mountains; also 
prepare yourselves to describe them by the topic 
lists, I gave you, a few days since. How many 
have the topic lists? [Hands rise.] John, you 
have the topic lists ; you may write, on the board, 
the topic list for natural divisions of land. 8u- 
san, you may write the topic list, for natural di- 
visions of water, on the board. Now, those who 
have lost them, can copy them, and then, I hope, 
they will copy them into their Topic Books. 



GENERAL DIRECTIONS 

FOR THE STUDY OF COUXTRIES, EMPIRES, KINGDOMS, AND 

STATES. 

Remark. I do not deem it advisable to confine 
scholars, for any lesson, exclusively to map studies, as 
is proposed in Monteith & McNally's Geography. 
I would make map-studies a part of every lesson, 
in connection with every country, empire, king- 
dom, or state. 

34. 

Direction I. — Map-Drawing. The practice of 
map-drawing, should be kept up, without inter- 
mission. Besides drawing on slates, and on black- 
board, pupils should be required, in order, one or 
more every day, to bring in a finished map, drawn 
on paper, not always, necessarily, of the country 
assigned for study of the class. These may be 
drawn, mathematically, and proportionally, larger 
or smaller than the map in the atlas or book, by 
drawing tlic marginal lines first, in proportion to 



212 



GJLOGllAPHY. 



the marginal lines of the printed map, taking them 
one-half, two-thirds, or twice as largo, or in any 
other proportion. Then the scholar will use divid- 
ers, and divide the marginal lines into as many 
equal parts as those of the printed map ; then draw 
the lines of latitude and longitude. If these lines 
are curved, he can bend a piece of whalebone or 
hickory, prepared for the purpose, by extending a 
string from end to end, to keep it bent in the 
proper curve. By loosening or tightening the 
strins:, the curve can be varied to meet the de- 
mands of any line, on any map. The lines having 
thus been drawn and numbered, with the degree of 
latitude or longitude, the paper is ready for com- 
mencing the map. 

By the use of these squares, thus formed by the 
lines of latitude and longitude, noticing the posi- 
tion of each point, and direction of each line, as to 
which square it is in, and w^hich part of the square, 
and the proportional distance, in each correspond- 
ing square, a map can be drawn with correctness 
and beauty. The lines of latitude and longitude 
should be drawn in ink ; the boundaries, rivers, 
etc., should first be drawn with a pencil, afterwards 
with ink. 

35. 

Direction II. — Preparation and Use of Topics. 
Scholars should, in the main, prepare their own 
topics, as they have only to copy them from the 
bold faced type, as Boundaries, Situation, etc. 
Such natural divisions of land and water may be 
added, as occur in the country assigned for a Ice- 



oECONDAUY TEACHlNa. 213 

son. These may bo proposed, or writter. on the 
bhiekboard, when the lessori 13 assigned, at first, 
by the teacher. Soon, howev^cr, tlie schohir will 
be able to brin<^ in those topics, without any direc- 
tion from the teacher. I think the writing of such 
topic lists, a valuable exercise for the pu})il, and 
that he ought not to be deprived of it by using 
printed topics. The method of recitation, by top- 
ics, has already been fully described, and I will 
merely add, that scholars sliould be encouraged to 
recite, without looking at the topic list, and with- 
out any prompting or questioning from the teacher. 

As has before been stated, a definite length of 
time should be assigned, for each pupil to use in 
reciting; and the more he can accomplish, in this 
time, and the better he can do it, the higher should 
his grade be, on the class register, f'^>r each recita- 
tion. 

Strict attention should be given cO penmansliip, 
in preparing topics and copying them into the 
Topic Book, for review lessons. Much care should 
be bestowed, on precision and propriety of lan- 
guage, in the recitatious. Such attention and 
care, are generally the most effectual when given 
in the form of encouragement, rather than in the 
form of fault-finding. 

36. 

iJiRECTiON III. — Review Lessons, Review les- 
sons should be assigned frequently. I prefer to 
give them, in connection witli the divisions of the 
subject-matter, rather than to assign them periodi- 
cally, as many teachers do. In completing the 



214 GEOGRAPHY. 

study of the States, on any map, for instance, 1 
wor/Id propose a review of those States ; so, in com- 
pleting the study of the Grand Divisions, I would 
have the whole reviewed, even if it should take 
several lessons to accomplish it. 

37. 

Direction IY. — Pronunciation. Scholars 
should be required to consult the pronouncing 
vocabulary, before they come to the recitation. If 
there should be none, in the Geography used, they 
should have access to some dictionary that contains 
one ; or, if this is not practicable, the teacher, at 
least, should have such a dictionary, or gazetteer, 
on his table : and no geographical name should be 
p^'irmitted to pass, without a definite and certain 
knowledge of its pronunciation. The teacher will 
do well, in case any doubt arises, to require some 
scholar to look out the word, during the time of 
recitation. 



I I 



METHOD OF TEACHING ADVANCED 
CLASSES. 

38. 

INTRODUCTORY LESSON. 

In commencing a term of school, it is desirable 
tor the teacher to define the position that Geogra- 
phy holds in Science, in relation to other branches. 
This can be done by referring to Part I. The 
teacher should make an introductory exercise, as 
the scholars are not prepared for recitation, by 
presenting so much of the General Outline as is 
necessary for the purpose. It may be given thus: 

( Mathematica.', 
r Geography, j phenomenal, 



' Literature, 



a 



i..t«r»tu.t., J Mineralogy, 

1 ,, ,, ,. \ Chemistry, 
o . I Mathematic?, r> , „ 

Sciences, < ru.r.,^..*;.: Botany, 



^«'"gy' [Descriptive. 



Arts. 



1 Therapeutics, i r,^ , -„ 
uu • I zoology. 

(^ Physics. ^ "•' 



Havin2; "written so much of the General Outline, 
he should present the definition of every term used, 
beginning with Knowledge. These definitions 
are found in Part I. But the teacher should not 
confine himself to bare definitions; he should oc- 
cupy the whole time, allotted to this recitation, in 
such illustrations and exemplifications of these 
definitions, as will make them intelligible and in- 
teresting to his pupils. He will thus have deliv- 
10 (215) 



216 GEOGRAPHY. 

ered a systematic introductory lecture, and will 
have given liis pupils an earnest of his abiiity to 
manao-e the class in a novel and interestino; man- 
ner. 

The scholars should be requested to copy the 
outline so presented, in order that they may be 
able to report on it from time to time, and that 
each may have an entire course of outlines, em- 
bracing the whole subject of Geography. The 
teacher will also assign a lesson for the next exer- 
cise ; state, if possible, at what time the class may 
expect to be called on for a recitation. As it is 
supposed that the class are already familiar with 
Geography, to a considerable extent, it is not de- 
sirable, perhaps, to follow the course of any text- 
book that may be used in the class, but to follow 
the course marked oiitin the Outline of Geography, 
as presented below. The teacher will give as much 
of it, for successive lessons, as his class can well man- 
age. It will be seen, however, that a variety of text- 
books, in an advanced class, is no bar to its pro- 
gress, but decidedly a means of greater interest 
and improvement. There is no objection, however, 
to all the c4ass having a book of the same kind; 
but all the class should be in possession of one or 
more besides the common text book. They should 
all have access to Physical Geography, which may 
be found in the new edition of McNally's Geogra- 
phy ; also to some good system of Histories, as 
Willard's School Histories. 

Before proceeding further with the method of 
teaching advanced classes, it will be necessary to 
present the Outline of Geography. 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 



217 



39. 



I. Mathematical Geography. 



\ t 



o 

P4 



Distance 

froiUj 

Inclinatioi 

Direction 

of axis 

Form of 
Orbit 



f Sun, 95 million miles, 

\ Moon, 240 thousand inile:^, 

Other planets, variable, 
' Isearest fixed star, 40 trillion inile5. 
•)f axis —23- 28 inin. 
I towards North Star. 



] Elliwt, ! 



f 



B 

o 



09 I 



Proofs that tho 
Earth 
is globular. 



Proofs that the 
Earth is an ob- 
late spheroid, 



J 
3 
4 
5 



ith itself. 

ai;iji)r axis, 

minor axis, 

eccentricity. 
Jireumnavigation. 
Vppearanc;} of ship at Sea, 
S'fiadow on the Mood, 
Api">e.^rance of Polar Star, 
Af.pcaraice of Clouds in Horizon, 

6. Suspended weights, 

7. Force of Gfravity, 

8. Analogy 
Actual MeasTirement 
Varying vibrat'on i-i pendulum. 
Centrifugal Forct, 
Analogy, 
Measurement of degrees of latitndo. 



o 

« r 



foi 



araeter 






Equatorial, 7924 miles. 
Polar, 7898 " 

Mean, 7912 " 



li? 



ifference 
"26 miles. 



Circumference, 25,000 miles. 
Area, 197,000,000 square miles. 



o 

> 

cn 

£3 
O 



Diurnal, 



Annual, 



In common 
with 
solar 
(^ system. 



'Velocity at Equator 1000 miles per hoar, 
r Table turns under pendulum, 
J^alling body strikes east of ver- 
Proofs, < tical line, 

Necessary assumption in all as- 
v, 1^ tronomical calculations, 

f Velocity, 68,000 miles f)er hour in orbit. 
I C Abe rratijn of light, 

i Proofs, J Change of Seasons, 

\ Necessary assumption in all as- 
[ [ tronom'Ciil calculations. 

[Velocity per hour 3,500 miles. 
) i Approaching and receding of 

j Proof, ■< fixed stars in opposite parts of 
[ I the heavens. 



218 GEOGRAPHY. 



Mathematical Geography — Concludtd, 



( 1. Axis, 

j 2. Pules, 

I 3. Diameter, 

I 4, Circumference, 

5. Equator, 

6. Tropics, 
. 7. Polar Circles, 

I 8, Parallels of Latittide, 
9. Meridians of Longitude, 

10. Zones, 

11. Hemispheres, 

,o TT • { sensible 

12. Horizon, \ ^. , 
/ rational, 

i.13. Colures. 

fl. Globe, 
I 2. Tellurian, 



( Points, 
5. <( Liues, 
I Divisions, 



6, Means of Representing,] 3. ArmiUa.y sphere, 



Maps, 
Charts. 



40. 

II. Physical Geography. 

1. Structure and Materials. 

f Igneous Rocks, ) 

II Metamorphic >• Inorganic, 
I Rocks, ) 

^ f Primary, 

Aqueous Rocks— Organic, I Tertiary, 
( [ Quaternary, 

Chemistry. 



Geology, 



Temperature, 



if 



2. Temperature. 

At the surface variable, 

Depth of invariable temperature, 

"ncrease of temperature downwards. 

3. Laud. 



Extent, Proportion, Distribution, Analogies of Continents. 

{1. Continent, 2. Island. 3. Peninsula, 
4. Isthmus, 5. Cape. 6. Promontory, 
7. Shore or Coast, 8. Banks, 9. Shoals. 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 



219 



Physical Geography — Continved. 



1: 1 

3 



MouDiain, 



Hill, 



Plain, 



Vallej, 



1. Ranges, 

2. Systt'ins, 
J 3. Groups, 
^ 4. Peaks. 



5. Volcanoes 
High, 



Fertile, 



Barren, 



{ Directions, 
I Distribution, 
\ Analogies, 
I Slope, 
[ Counter-Slope. 

{Active, 
Intermittent, 
Extinct. 
\ Table Land, 
/ Plateau, 

(Prairie, 
Selva, 
Pampa, 
Steppe, 
C Sandy, ) ( Causes 
< Salt, \ } and 

[Alkaline. J f Uses. 



4. Water. 



Fnasb, 

Salt, 

Mineral, 



•ccans i 
and ■< 
Seas. I 

ake, < 



\ Soft, 
I Hard, 
I Ocean, 
I Lake, 
C Acidulous, 



1 

r Localities, 
[ I Composition, 
\ \ Weight, 



) Chalybeate, I Points of i ebullition, 
Sulphurous, I ^ ' congelation. 

Saline, J 

color, saltness, temperature 
depth, quantity, level, 
e.xtent, tiiste, motions, 
with Inlets and Outlets, 
with Inlets and no Outlets, 
with Outlets and no Inlets, 
with neither Inlets nor Outlets. 
Subtf/rranean, 
Peri'jdicaL 



Characteristics, 

Fresh, j I I; 

Salt, ) i' 

1 6'. 



I i 



220 



GEOGRAPHY. 



Physical Geography — Continued. 



( 



Gulf, 

Bay, 

Strait, 

Channel, 

Sound, 

■^ River, 
i Estuary, 

Canal, 

Well, 



( Source, 
1 Mouth, 
r stagnant, 
I gfintie, 



1. Extent, 

2. Velocity of J '^^'^\ 

3. Magnitude 



in Mountains, 
in liake?, 
in Springs. 



I Cataracts, 
[ Case 



ascades, 
r length, 
!, ■{ breadth, 
(^ depth, 

{extent, 
Water-Shed, , 

Basins or Bottoms, \ „" J 
' / 2nd. 

I Fluvial, 

5. Delta, < Lacustrine, 

( Maritime. 

6. Direction, f Ordinary, 

7 T il't ' Subterrrnean, 

^' 1 On elevations of their own form 

1 i for what vessels, 

8. Uses, •< Navigable, -| 

( ( to what extent. 



5. Atmosphere. 



r, •.• ( essential, 

Composition, ] accidental. 

Color, 

Height, I how determined. 

Temperature, | Limits on surface, in 



I 

fat surface, 
at height of three miles, 
ratio of diminution upward. 



Torrid Zone, 
Temperate Zone, 
Frigid Zone. 



Fluidity. 
Elasticity. 

Moisttire, 



Limits of ratio to the atmosphere. 

Dew, Fogs, Clouds, Rain, Hail, Snow, Frost. 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 



221 



Physical Geography — Continued. 



[Jeee, 



Classes, 



Circumstances 
modifying, 



Climate, < 



Isothermal 
Zones. 



Salubrity, 

Natural, 
Artificial. 



i Continental or excessive, 
\ Insular, 
f Latitude, 

Height above the Sea, 
I Proximity to bodies of water, 

Slope of country, 

Position and direction of Mouq* 
lain Chains, 

Nature of soil, 
I Degree of cultivation. 
I Prevalent winds, 
t Annual quantity of rain. 
{ Torrid, ] 

I Hot, Boundaries, 



J Warm, 

^ T« 



How determined. 



.em per ate, 
Cold, 

(^Frigid, j Productions. 

{"i r Temperature 

Causes I ] Soil, 

modifying, i j Moisture, 

J l^ Cultivation. 



8. Productions. 



is % 



Non-combusti- 
ble, 



-S' I Coal, 



3 { Naphtha, ) 
■p I Petroleum, ) 
o I Sulphur, 
^ t Amber. 



fAir, 
I Water, 

I Building materials, 
•{ Statuary " 
I Ornamental " 
i Drug, " 

L Chemical " 
Anthracite, 
Bituminous, 
Cannel, 



■) Liquids, 



f Distribution, 



Abundan'^e, 



1 



Locality, 



J ^ Uses. 



GEOGRAPHY. 



Physical Geography — Continued. 



Noble, 



,o Intermediate, 






1 f Manner of deposition, 
'Gold, I Distribution, 

Platina, ( ' Abundance, 

Silver, I I Localities, 

.Mercury, j I Comparative value, 

J t Uses. 

Aluminum, [ \ I>eposition, properties, 



Base, 



S \ value, uses, abundance 

r 

f Manner of deposition, 
I Distribution, 
J Abundance, 
j Localities, 

Camparative value, 
y Uses. 



Cryptogamous, 



^^ 






Iron. 

Copper, 

Lead, 

Tin, 

Zinc, 

Cobalt, 

Arsenicum, 

Antimony, 

Bismuth, 

f Mosses, 

Lichens, 

Fungi. 

Ferns, 

Sea-weed, 

f Palms, 
I Grasses, 

Endogens, \ Cereals, 
Lilies, 
. Canes, etc. 



Phenogamoua, - 



Exogens, ■< 



FruitJ 



f Apple, 

I Pear, 
Peach, 
Orange, 

j Grape, 

t etc. 



Forest Trees, 



I 



Banian, etc. 



S^ 



i\ 



IS 



Torrid 

Flora, 

Temperate 
Flora, 



W 



I 



Frigid 
Flora, 

Vertical, 



Description, 
Most important 

plants. 
Description, 
Most important 

plants, 
Description, 
Most important 

plants, 
Arrangement of 

phints on 

Mountains. 



f Food plants, 
I Spices, 
\ Narcotics, 
I Dyes, 
t Ornamental. 

Trees, 
Mosses, 
Lichens, 
Plants of 
the several 
Zones. 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 



223 



- ' f^' 



lu 



l\ 



Physical Geography — Concluded. 



f ITomo — man. 

Quadrumann. — monkej, ape, oto., 
I Carnivora- lion, bear, ciit, dog. 
! etc. 

I Marsupalia — opopsum, kangaroo. 
Rodenliita — beaver, squirrel, rat, 

etc. 

Edentata— sloth, armadillo, etc. 
Pacbyderoiata — elephant, horse, 

hog. etc. 
Ruminata — camel, ox, sheep, etc. 
I Whale, 
( Dolphin. 



9 

'a 



1. Mammalia,-' 



I 2. Birds, 

3. Reptiles, 
[ 4. Fishes. 



2. Moleoscoas, 



rr 1 



3. Articulated, 

4. Radiated, 



Horizontal, ■■ 



Vertical, 



I Marine, 

( Oyster, 

V Snail, 

/ Mussel. 

Insects, 

Worms, 

Lobsters and Crabs. 
Coral, 
Zoophyte. 

General description — pe- 
culiar animal? of eivch 
grand division. 
General description of an- 
imals common and pecu- 
liar to each division. 
General description of an- 
imals common and pecnlifvi 
to each grand divieitni. 
Arrangement of animals 
un mountaLiis. 



[Torrid I j 

I Fauna. i j 

1) 



Temperate 
Fauna, 

Frigid 
Fauna 



10* 



224 



GE0v3RAPHY. 



1. 

2. 
3. 

4. 
5. 

6. 
7. 

8. 



10. 
11. 



41. 

III. Phenomenal Geography. 

1. Astronomical Phenomena. 

Day and night — variation in length of day and night. 

Change of Sun's declination. 

Rising and setting of the Sun north of east and west, lu 

Summer. 

Where on the Earth's surface do the days begin? 

Difference of time. 

No absolute up and down, east or west. 

Change of Seasons. 

Appearance of the Sun in the frigid lones. 

T-i ,. ( Solar, 

Eclipses, ] T 

^ ' ; Lunar. 

Changes of the Moon. 

Precession of Equinoxes. 

Shooting Stars, 

Falling Stars. 



12. Meteors, 



1. 

2. 

3. 
4. 
6. 
6. 
7. 



2. Terrestrial Phenomena. 

Formation and structure of the Earth. 

Internal hea^ \ ^®P^^ ^^ invariable temperature 

"' ( Ratio of increase downwards. 
Elevation of Mountains. 
Elevation and subsidence of Continents. 
Elevation and subsidence of Islands. 
Volcanoes — Causes of Eruptions. 
Earthquakes — Causes, Movements and Effcct&i. 



1 



i 



> 



J 



explanation} 



Perpetual, 
j Intermittent, 
I Periodical. 
R. Springs, ■\ Artesian Wells, 
Salt Springs, 
Hot Springs, 
Fire Springs. 
'Origin, 
Formation of channels, 
Formation of bottoms, 
9. Rivers, \ Formation of oxbows, bayous, and islands, 
I Formation of deltas, 

I Elevation of bed above surroimding country, 
[Rdnning up hill. 

f Causes, 
I Stalactites, 
I Stalagmites, 
I Gases, 
I Rivers, 
I, Lakes. 



10. Caves, 



^ Motintair, 
I Subterranean, 






r 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 



225 



PHEN3MENAL GEOGRAPHY — Continued. 



-..r . 1 T. • 1 \ cause, 

11. Natural Bridges, | ^^^^^ remarkable. 

( cause, 



12. Causeways, 



colamns, 



shape, 



5. Level, \ 

{ 



3. Oceanic Phenomena. 

1. Saltness, Causes, Limits of percentage. 

2. Temperature, in Torrid, Temperate, and Frigid Dorics; in 

currents. 

3. Depth, Deepest Sounding, Method <)f bounding. 

4. Density, at surface, at depth of a mile. 
Variation, Apparent ; \ elevation of land, 

Variation, \ I depression of land, 

recuse, 

I I Height— "Billows mountain high"? 
! m" I Force, 
j ► \ Direction, 
^ I Rate of travel, 
^ I The Bore, 
1^ Uses. 
' Causes, 

Tide opposite the Moon, 
Direction and rate of travel. 
Later daily recurrence, 
Tides in rivers — many at the same time, 
Spring and neap tides. 
What six concurring circumstances will givo 

the highest tide? 
Extraordinary local tides — causes. 

a \K L- J *. Uses. 

8. Motions,-^ ( r Antarctic drift, 'l 

Pacific equatorial, 
Lidian " I 

Atlantic " \ f causes. 

South Atlantic, extent, 

Brazil, direction. 

South connecting, 1 i force, 

\ Cape, ^ \ tempera- 

^ ,P u, ( N. branch, ture, 

Gulf Stream, J g „ | ^^^^^^ 

. ( E. branch, [ effects. 

Arctic, j ^ u 

Japan, 

Grassy Sea, j 

Counter, 1 \ means of determinins, 
t i^ I Under, j i effects, 



^1 



226 



GEOGRAPHY 



Phenomenal Gteograph y — Continued, 



0. Porioiisal Currents, 



7. 



Ccral, ^ 



fof Red Sea, ^ 
J of Persian Gulf, { ( causes, 
I of India Ocean, f \ effects, 
[of China Sea, J 

( No. of genera and species, 
Coral animalculae, •< description, 
( habits. 
fReef, 
/ Branch, 
j Brain. 

[ Organ pipe, etc. 
) habitable part, 
\ lagoon, 
encircling, 



Classes, 



Atolse, 



Reefs, 
Chalk beds. 



barrier, 
I fringing, 
how formed, 
how forming. 



C causes, 
I shape, 
> \ localities, 
I uses, 
[ dangers. 



Weight, 



4. Atmospheric Phenomena. 

( cause, methods of determining, rate of dimlnu 
\ tion upwards, effects, force, 

f cause. 



Pressure, 



illu.'trations, 
effects. 



r preserves liquidity of water, 
j prevents vacuums, 

water in pump and 



si« 



raises 

phon, 
"aises mercury in barometer, 
Combination with water to 

maintain life of fish. 

r flying of birds, 

J difference of descent;, 

\ retarding velocity of railro&d 

( cars. 

4. Temperature — cause of variation, rate of diminution npward. 

5, Boiling point of Trter — variation upward and downward. 



3 Resistance, 



cause, 

illustnUions, 

effects, 



■III IbiIWI I> mi in Pl'hi I I I I 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 



227 



Phenomenal Geography — Continued. 



Cffilaes, 



Heat, 

Kloctricity, 
Revolution of the Ef 



(operations of each 

Velocity and M n .1 r> • 1 n- u tt- 1 . rr 

force of 1 \ C'entle, Brisk, High, Violent, Hurncane. 

Direction, 



- m 



^ 



V means of determining, 
( upper and lower currents, 
f explanation, 

equatorial, 



zones of calms, -l 

Constant I ( 

or Trade, 1 r • •. 
' Limits, 

[ Use8. 
Land and Sea breezes, 



ropical, 

nd Soul 
East and West. 



I North and South, 



nortberr 
southern. 



Periodical, ■{ 



I localities, 



localities. 



explanatioDS. 
periods. 



Monsoons, ) ( "^^•■'''^'^f: 

Etesians, t J explanations, 

V .u I J extent, 

JNo^ther?-, ) f . ,' 

' "■ periods. 

' localities, 
explanations, 

r Simoom, 

Variable, \ Khamsin, 

' ' - Hannattan, 

Sirocco, 
Pamperos, 
^Bora. 



Local, 



Whirlwinds, 
Hurricanes, 

Tornadoes, 
Typhoons, 

Water Spouts 



Navigation, 



11 
I 



localities, 
explanation, 
chief periods. 

locality, 
explanation, 
attending phenomena. 
'Former ignorance in relation to. 
Late improvements. 

, from Europe to Americi\, 

I Gon'l principles, \ [[ H* ?• 1° f,"''^^' 

1 »^ ' ) " N. Y. to Francisco, 

L ^ " U. S. ^a China. 



!28 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PUENOMENAL GEOGRAPHY — Contmtted, 



Evaporation, 



proofs, 
extent, 

average annual j Temperate Zone, 
from sq. rod, ( Torrid Zone. 



Dew, 



C explanation, 
T^ • . \ depending on what? 

Dew point, j J^^ determined? ^ 

J Dew at midday — "pitcher sweats," 

^ circumstances favoring, f j explanation, 

circumstances preventing, ) ( *^ ' 

Frozen — frost, 
[^ uses? 



2i i 



(explanation, 
condition of moisture, 
localities of dense fogs, 
periods of fogs. 

f explanation — how differ, 

height, 
I , Cirrus, , 

Clouds, i f,,,,,^, J Cumulus,/ description of each. 



^ uses, 
'explanation 



Kain, 



J Cirrus, 
Cumulus 
Stratus, 
Nimbus, 



i^ 



' from equator to poles, 
from sea to interior, 
^ .... on east and west shores 

General principles, j .^ Tropios, 

in Temperate Zone, 
[in Frigid Zone. 

{Rainless, | 

Periodical rains, > where. 
Frequent rains, ) 



Snow, 



'explanation, 
snow crystals, 
extent superficially, 

in Torrid Zone, 
Snow line, •{ in Temperate Zone, 

in Frigid Zone. 



f explanation, 

I character and appearance of ioe, 

oi • I localities, 
Glftciers, ^ ^^^^^^^ 

motions, 
^ effects. 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 



229 



Phenomenal Geography — Concludet . 



Avalanches, 



2 Icebergs, 



1^ 



1. 



Hail, 



explanations, 

localities, 

effects. 

explanation, 

dimensions, 

proportion above water, 

localities, 

I extent, I cool southern climate, [seit, 

( effects, -( distribute rocks over bottom of 
( boulders on present continents, 

{explanation, 
dimensions, 
localities, 
effects. 

IV. — Electrical Phenomena. 



' Explanation, 



Thunder and 
Lightning. 



Classes, 



Zigzag, 
Sheet, 
Globu4ar, 
Heat. 



Protection, 



Rods, 



inventor, 

extent of protection, 
best materials, 
^ best arrangement. 

^Localities to be avoided 

when most abundant. 



2. Mariner's Light. 



3. Aurora Boreal 



■■■1 



^ Localities, — 
I explanation, 
I localities. 

explanation, 

appearance, 

localities. 

Phenomena. 



V. — Optical 

r explanation of j P^JSry 

1. Rainbow, -(classes, 1 lunar 

.... \ in time, 

limits, j . ,.„„' 

J^ ' ; in place. 

o rr , r» \ explanation, 

2. Halos Corona, j J^;,^,;^^^ 

- ( Mock Sun, ) j explanation, 
j Mock Moons. J J localities. 

{explanation, 
localities, 
effects. 
, T L- • • • < explanation, 

5. Inverting images in air. j lo^alitiea, 

i explanation, 
localities, 
effeote. 



230 



GEOGRAl II r. 



VI. — Political Geography. 
Government. 



1. PatriarchaL 



2. Absolute 
Monarchy. 



8. Limited 
Monarchy. 



5. Republic. 



Political divisions, 

Chief officer. 
Subord'te officers, 



l' Political Divisions, 

Chief Officer, 
I Subord. Officers, 



4. Aristocracy. •( 



Branches of Gov- i 
ernment, ) 

'Political Divisions, | 

Chief Officer, { 

Coordinate branches ) 
of Government, ) 

'Political divisions, 

1 

! Chief Officer, 



Coordinate branches 
I of Government, 

f Political divisions, i 

Chief Officer, } 

J Subord. Officers, J 

Coordinate branches ) 
of Government, S 



{term of service, 
how appointed, 
extent of power. 
Empire. Kingdom. 
i time of service, 
-| how appointed, 
( extent of power. 

{how established, 
extent of jurisdiction, 
officers, how app'ted. 
Empire, Kingdom, 
how appointed, 
extent of power, 
how establisheu, 
extent of jurisdiction, 
officers, how app'ted. 



how appointed, 
extent of power, 
how established, 
extent of jurisdiction, 
officers, how app'ted. 
State, Duchy, 
time of service, 
how appointed, 
extent of power, 
how established, 
extent of jurisdiction, 
officers, how app'ted. 



Caucasian, 

Mongolian, 

Malay, 

American, 

African. 



Races. 

, Color,— skin, hair, eyes, 

( eyes, nose, cheekbones, forehead, 

Features, ^ ^Quth, lips, chin, hair. 

Nations included. 

Number estimated, 
"^ Distinguishing characteristics, 

Government^ 

Languages, 

Civilization, 
^ Religion. 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 



231 



Political GEOGRAriiy, — Continued. 



Classes, 
to manner 
living. 



Classes, as 
to S{;cial eon- 
dition. 



State of Society. 



{Roving Tribes, ) 
Ndiniulic Tribes,)- 
Fixed Nations, ) 

i Enlightened, . 
Civilized, / 

Half Civilized, f 
Savage, 



t mode of subsistence, 
( mode of habitation, 

f Attainments in Art8 and 

Sciences, 
I Systems of Education, 
] Political power, 
I Religion, 
I Humane institutions. 






Roman Catholic, 
Greek Church, 
Protestant, 
Nestorians, 



' Founders, 
Ecclesiastical System, 

how hppoioted. 



Religion. 

' Founder-s, 
Ecclesiastical system, 

Officers, 1 ^""'^ appointed, 

' I extent oi power, 
Books of authority, 

Worship, 1 ^^Jf ^«' 
^' I modes, 

Sects, 

Number, 

Embraced in what nations. 



2. Jewi 



Officers, 



Books of authority, 

W, . \ objects, 
orship, 1 •*, ' 



extent of power. 



3. Mahometans, i 



modes. 
I Sects, 
I Number, 

[.Scattered through what nations? 
' F .under, 
Ecclesiastical System, 

Officers, ! ^'7 "Pf^^intcd, 

' ( ertent oi power. 
Books tf .Tuihority, 

Worship, S ''^^T'' 
' ' i modes, 

Sects, 

Number, 

(.Embraced by what nationQ? 

'Books of authority. 

Worship, ! "^i'""' 

«. Par- < Sees, "°°'"' 
I Number, 
(.Embraced by what nations? 



.J 



232 



GEOGRAPHY. 



Political Geography — Continued, 



Artificial Productions. 



Food, 



Animal, 



Vegetable, 
Anima 



Beef, 
Mutton, 
P-ik, 
Cereals- 
Fruits— 



Butter, 
Lard, 

Tallow, etc. [Rye, ote. 
Wheat, Corn, Oats, Barley, 
Apple, Peach, Pear, etc. 



Clothing, 

Animals for Labor, 
Fuel, 

Miscellaneous, 



Mibcellaneous 



Raw, 



Btauufactnrei. i 



Roots— Putatoe, Beet, Turni): 
Wool, Hair, Silk, Skins, «tc. 
Vegetable — Linen, Cotton, etc. 

Horse, Mule, Ox, Camel, 
Reindeer, Di g, etc. 
Animal — Tallow, Lard. 
Vegetable — Wood, Charcoal. 
( Cordage — Hemp, etc. 
Medicines — Castor Bean, Oil 
Dyes — Madder, Indigo, etc. 

f Ores and precious stones 

Clay and Sand, 

Stone, 

Timber, 

Ivory, 

Horn, etc. 
pi eta Is, 
I Hewed Stone, 
1 Lumber, 
1 Brick, 

I Yarn and Cloth, 
v^ Leather, etc. 
f Machinery, 
I Cutlery, 
I Crockery, 
I Houses, 
I Furniture, 
Finished, ■{ Clothing, 
I Shoes, 
I Hats, 

Clocks, 

Ornaments, 



etc. 



[mint, ote 
of i'eppor- 



Wrought, 



Diamond 
Agate, 
Opstl, etc 



f Food- 
Fuel, 

Condiments, 



Fish, Game, etc. 

4 Coal — Bituminous, Anthracite, 
/Oil. 

I Coffee, Tea, Sugar, 
( Spices, Salt, 
p. ^ Mineral — Calomel, etc. 

iJrxigs, ^ Vegetable— Strychnine, etc. 
Perfumes, 
Pai n ts, 
Pyes, 
Poisons — Corrosive Sublimate, Arsenic, etc. 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 



233 



I'oi.iTJCAL GEO(jRAriiy — Continued. 
Employments. 

i Farmer, Gardener, Fruit Grower, etc. 
Glazier. Shepherd, Drover, Butcher, etw. 
Teamster, Chopper, Sawyer, etc. 
Fishery. Whaleman. Codfisher, Oysteiiuaii, etc. 

Manufactures. ,' Ji"'"^' Quarryman, LumberiHun, Trapper, 
I Mechanics. 

( i Importers, 

Merchants, -| .lubbers, 

I ( Retailers. 

I f. Sailors, 
Commerce. \ Moatmen, 

Transporters, \ ^«il'-^«dmen, 

^ I r^tage owners and driver^ 

I Teamsters and Draymen, 
I, Stevedores. 
'Architects, 
Designers, 
Musicians, 
Artists. \ Painters, 

( Sculptors, 
I Engravers, 
t^ Daguerreans. 
, Teachers. 

Professions. J Ministers, 
1 l-bysici«vis, 
' Lawyers. 



Ancient 
Countries. 



Modern 
Countries. '' 



Dynasticp, 

Extent of 
Conquests, 

Decline 
and Fall, 
Change of 
Govern- 
ments, 



Battles, 



Extent of 
Conquests, 



History. 

j \Va"r^s' f ^^^^«- 

f over what ccuntrie?, 

undor what kings and generals, 

under what king, 

by what nation and king subdued, 

by whom effected. 

causes of decay, 

effects on civilization and religion, 
f date, 
I locality, 

I number of men engaged on each aide. 
■{ generals, 
I causes, 

I number slain on each side, 
I. consequences, 
j over what countries, 
\ under what kings and gener .Is. 



234 



GEOGRAPnr. 



Political Geography — Concluded, 



Education. 

1. Diffusion and extent of \ among the cumraon people, 

Knowledge, ) among higher classes. 

i Public, (by whom established, 

2. Libraries, < -(number of volumes, 

(Private, tconditions of use. 



f Universities, 
Public, I Normal Schools, 

or ■{ High Schools, 
Free, | Common j classified 

[ Schools, ( unclassified, 

„ . . f Uni verities, 

Private 1*1 1 o u 1 

Norma I Schools, , . , 

TT- u c! u I (- "1 charges, 

Iliorh S hoo s, ' ! .- o ' 



Pay. 



J L 

endowed, 



i Number of Teaeoere 
j 
Number of Pupils, 



Chairs, 
amounts. 



Grammar Schools, 



Number of Teachers, 
J (, Number of Pupils. 



Literature, Sciences, and Arts. 

what form the most generally") Historical? 



Literature, 



cultivated? 
I what form the most highly 
(^ Oiliivated? 



Periodical? 

Poetical? 

Metaphorical.? 



Sciences, <, 



. . J , \ names^ 
most noted works, ., „ 
' I authors: 

what the most generally -'.nderstood? 



what the most highly cultivated^ 

{character? 
discoveries? 
consequences? 
t. what the most generally cultivated? 

{what the most highly cultivated? 
most noted inventions? | ( character? 
> ■< inventors? 
most noted works? ) ( consequences? 

Miscellaneous. 

Natural Curiosities, Artificial Curiosities, Places and objeotfi 
of Interest, Distingu-ihed Persons, Manners and Customs, Lan- 
guages, Traveling Facilities, etc., etc. 



I ; 



ADVANCED TEACniNO. 236 

43. 

Descriptive Geography. 

i. Boundaries, 

2. Latitude and Longitude, 

3. Surface, 

4. Mountains, 

5. Volcanoes, 

6. Plains, 

7. Mands, 

8. Peninsula, 

9. Capes, 

10. I-siIimus, 

11. Bodies of Water, 

12. Rivers, 

13. Noted Springs, 

14. Climate, 

16. Isothermal Line, 

16. Soil, 

17. Natural Currents, 

18. Natural Productions, 

19. Square Miles, 

20. Population, 

21. Race, 

22. State of Society, 

23. Capital. 

24. Chief Towns, 

25. Employments, 

26. Facilities for Traveling, 

27. Aj^ricultural Productions, 

28. Manufactured Productions. 

f Slaves, 

29. Miscellaneous Productions, J plg^^'*"*^' 

I Tar, 'etc. 

30. Religion, 

31. Educi'.tion, 

32. Morality, 

33. Manners and Customs, 

34. Languages, 

35. History. 

M. Literature, Arts and Ssienoos. 



2^0 GEOGRAPHY. 

44. 

SUCCEEDING LESSONS. 

The class will pursue this course of Outlines, in 
successive lessons, with frequent reviews, till it 
shall have been mastered. 

Then they will commence Descriptive Geogrttphy, 
takins: one or two Political divisions for a lesson, 
using the Topic List on page 235, in the prepara- 
tion and recitation of their lessons. 

The Teacher of an ungraded or country school, 
can make a division of the class, according to the 
ability of the scholars, by assigning the whole 
Topic List, as a guide for the lesson of the most 
advanced scholars, and only such topics as are 
found in the textbook used, to scholars less ad- 
vanced. These two divisions may recite as one 
class. 

The general plan of managing the recitation of 
an advanced class, is the same as for a secondary 
class, the difference being in the greater range of 
topics examined, and in the greater amount of 
time allowed each scholar for a recitation. 



J ! 

J 



USE OF APPARATUS. 

45. 

The remaining pages of Part IV. will be given 
to the description and use of the Globe and Tellu- 
rian, and their use in the explanation of Astro- 
nomical Phenomena. The matter was originally 
written by me, several years since, for a text-book, 
to accompany Holbrook's School Apparatus. Most 
of it was transferred to the Teacher's Guide to 
Illustration, a work prepared by F, C. Brownell, 
for a similar purpose, and published in Hartford, 
Ct., 1857. That is a valuable work, and should be 
in the hands of every teacher. 




mmmMM^::.^ 



TERRESTRIAL GLOBE. 



(237) 



238 GEOGRAPHY. 

46. 

A (ilobe should invariably precede thf^ nse ot 
maps, to avoid the erroneous impressir-L, with chil 
dren, that the earth is flat; and tiie [leniisphere 
Globe may be used in connection wiib the Hemis- 
phere Map. 

For several reasons, a five-inch globe is prefera- 
ble, in a common school, to one of any other size. 

While it shows the spherical form as well as any 
other, and is larjre enou":h to uive a distinct view 
of the principal divisions of land and water to all 
the members of any ordinary class in Geography, 
it is not so large but that it can be held in the 
hand conveniently for familiar illustration; nor is 
it so large but that it can be made of solid, firm 
material, without too much increase of weight, 
which secures it against destruction in case of a 
fall. 

Again, anything that is desirable to be taught 
by the use of a globe to an ordinary Geography 
class, can be taught better with a small globe, ele- 
vated on a simple pedestal, or suspended by a cord, 
than by a large globe, costing ten or twenty times 
as much, surrounded and encumbered by a frame 
work, horizon and meridian, as such globes usually 
are. 

The fact, that where both a large and a small 
globe are in possession of teachers, the former ia 
shoived to visitors, and the latter used to instruc* 
scholars, is a sufficient indication of the compara- 
tive utility of the two. 

But an outline globe is preferable, in primary in 



"! i 



I I 



USE OF APPARATUS. 239 

Htruction, to one so much crowded with names as 
to render the ibrms of seas and continents obscure 
and incorrect. The details of particular countries 
are studied better on maps than on globes. If tlie 
minutiae of Geography should be studied on globes, 
then ought globes to be large enough to embrace 
the details of countries and towns, which, of course, 
is impossible within any ordinary limits of expense. 

47. 

APPLICATIONS. 
I. — THE SHAPE OF THE EARTH. 

That the earth is spherical, appears from the 
following proofs and illustrations: 

Proof Is/. The earth has been traveled around. 
Illustration. As a fly crawling around the 
globe, in any continuous direction, comes back to 
the starting point, so travelers have passed around 
the earth, in nearly all directions, and returned to 
their homes. 

Proof 2(1. The shadow of the earth on the 
moon is always circular. 

Jllustration. The globe always casts a circular 
shadow, whereas no other body, in all positions, 
will do so. Try a cylinder, a cone, oblate and 
prolate spheroids, and then the globe. 

Proof M. The upper part of an approaching 
object is seen first, as a ship at sea. 

Illustration. Insert a pin into the globe, and 
turn the globe. The outer extremity is first seen, 
when approaching, and disappears last when reced- 
ing. 

11 



240 GEOGRAPHY. 

Prouf -ith. A horizontal line diverges from any 
horizantal plane surface. The divergence is eight 
inches for the first mile, thirty-two for two miles, 
six feet for three miles, and so on. 

Illustration. Apply a straight edge to the globe, 
and it is seen to coincide with it but a short dis- 
tance. 

Proof ^fh. Vertical lines, at any considerable 
distance from eacli other, are not parallel, but di- 
verge toward different parts of the heavens. 

Illustration. Insert two or more pins, pcrpen 
dicularly to the surface of the globe, at some dis 
tance from each other, and they are seen to diverge 
outward and to converge toward the center, i. p.^ are 
not parallel to each other, as they would be, if in- 
.serted perpendicularly into a plane surface. 

Proof Gfh. The North Star rises as we travel 
north, and declines as we go south, till we reach 
the equator, when it disappears. 

Illustration. The globe being on a stand, let the 
north pole be dircct-ed toward any small object, as 
a nail in the ceiling. If that nail represent the 
north star, and a short pin a traveler, and the pin 
be moved from the pole toward the equator and 
across it, then will it appear that the globe will in- 
tercept the line of vision from the traveler to the 
star soon after crossing the equator. 

Proof 7th. Analogy. 

Remark. As all other bodies in the heavens are 
spherical, except Comets and Saturn's rings, it is 
reasonable to conclude, that the earth is likewise n 
gphcre. 



I I 
i I 



'] 



USE OF APPARATUS. 241 

F^-oof Slh. AVere tlie earth ever a fluid, (and 
there is sufficient evidence to show this to be a 
[act,) the force ol' gravity would have compelled 
it to take the form of a sphere. 

48. 

THE EARTH A SPHEROID. 

That the earth is not a perfect sphere, but a 
spheroid, having the polar diameter shorter than 
the equatorial, appears from the following proofs : 

Proof 1st. A pendulum vibrates more rapidly 
as it is carried from the equator toward either pole. 

Remark. The frequency of the vibrations of a 
pendulum depends upon the force of gravity, and 
gravity varies as the squares of the distances from 
the center of the earth vary inversely. Since, 
then, a pendulum vibrates more rapidly near the 
pole than near the equator, it is inferred that the 
surface at the pole is nearer the earth's center 
than at the equator. 

Proof 2nd. A degree of latitude, on the earth's 
surface, as indicated by the stars, is longer near the 
poles than near the equator, showing that the 
surface is there flattened. 

Remark. By accurate measurement of degrees 
in the torrid and i'rigid zones, the polar diameter ia 
found to be twenty-six miles shorter than the 
equatorial diameter, or as 301 to 302. 

Proofed. Were the earth ever in a fluid state, 
the centrifugal force, arising from its rerolution on 
its axis, would compel it to assume the form of an 
oblate spheroid. 



i ' 



L.42 GEOGRAPHY. 

49. 
II. MATHEMATICAL LINES AND DIVISIONS. 

1. Diameter. Any straight line extending 
tlirouirh the center of the earth from surface to 
surface. 

2. Circumference. Any circle on the earth's 
surface which has the same diameter as the earth. 

3. Axis. That diameter about which the earth 
revolves. (^Poles. The extremities of the axis.) 

4. Great Circle. Any circle which divides the 
earth's surface into two equal parts. 

5. Small Circle. Any circle which divides the 
earth's surface into two unequal parts. 

6. Equator. The great circle, equally distant 
from the poles. 

7. Tropics. Two small circles, 23J degrees from 
the equator. 

8. Polar Circles. Two small circles, 23J degrees 
from the poles. 

9. Meridians. Great circles passing through 
the poles and the equator. 

10. Parallels of Latitude. Small circles ^iViraWe] 
to the equator, either north or south of it. 

11. Zone. A Dclt or girdle surrounding the 
oarth. 

Torrid Zone. That portion cf the earth's sur- 
face between the tropics. 

Temperate Zones. The two belts between the 
tropics and polar c'rcles. 

Frigid Zones. Those portions of the earth's 
surface included by the two polar circles. 

Hemispheres Any two equal divisions of the 



USE OF APPARATUS. 243 

earth; as, northern and southern, eastern and 
western. 

Remark. All mathematical lines and divii^ions 
are imaginary. 

lUustratltn. By the use of the globe, on which 
the imaginary circles are drawn, the other lines and 
divisions can be clearly pointed out and explained. 

50. 

III. MOTIONS OF THE EARTH. 

The two most important motions of the earth, 
are the Diurnal Motion, or that around its axis; 
and the Annual Motion, or that in its orbit around 
the sun. 

Jlhistration, 1. With the Globe on the stand, 
make it revolve on the inclination wire or axis. 
This will represent the diurnal motion. If at the 
same time, the globe is carried around any object 
representing the sun, it will illustrate the annual 
motion. 

Illustration^ 2. The better method of combining 
these motions is to suspend the Globe by a cord 
attached to a nail in the ceiling. By this means, 
the elliptical form of the orbit may be shown, an 
the two motions combined. 

51. 

IV. THE RELATIVE POSITION OF PLACES. 

The true relative position of places is not shown 
on maps, except in comparatively small areas; and 
tlie globe should be in the hand of the teacher 
of Geography at every recitation, in order that the 
scholars may obtain the true direction and approxi- 



1^44 



OEOGRAPHY. 



male distance of <?very County, Statu, or Town., 
from their place of residence and from eacli other. 

Remark. It will be seen by the globe that any 
place, as San Francisco, may be said to be in three 
directions from any other place, as London. San 
Francisco can be reached by traveling in a con- 
tinuous line on the earth's surface, either S. W. or 
N. E., or by electricity, in a straight line through 
the earth. Asia is both east and west of Ameri- 
ca, likewise on the opposite side of the earth. 

From the relative position of places on the 
earth's surface, the inhabitants receive diiferent rel 
ative appellations. 

Antipodes^ are those living diametrically opposite. 
They have opposite seasons, and opposite days and 
nights. 

Antcecl are those living under the same meridian, 
but on opposite parallels of latitude. They have 
opposite seasons, but the same days and nights, 
though the days of one arc always equal to the 
nights of the other, disregarding atmospheric re- 
fraction of light. 

Pericfci are thoi^e living on the same parallel of 
latitude, but under opposite meridians. They 
have the same seasons, but opposite days and 
nights ; i. e., when it is noon w^ith one, it is mid- 
night with the other. 

52. 

V. NO ABSOLUTE UP AND DOWN. 

Remark. Up and down are merely relative terms, 
used in connection with direction to or from the 
earth's center. With respect to the stars or space 



USE OF AITARATUS. 245 

at large, that direction wliicli we call up at midday 
is doicn at midnight. Arid at any time, that direc- 
tion which is up to any person on one side of the 
earth, is down to any person on the other side. 

Jllifstration, 1. Insert a pin into the globe and 
turn the globe on its axis. It will be seen that the 
direction which would be called iq-> by a person 
similarly situated on the earth is constantly chang- 
ing. 

Illustration, 2. Insert two pins at antipodes, as 
in America and Asia. It will be seen that the 
heads point in opposite directions, i. e., tlie direc- 
tion which is vp to one is down to the other. 

53. 

VI. PHENOMENA. 
SUCCESSLON OF DAY AND NIGHT. 

Day and night are caused by the revolution of 
the earth on its axis, bringing any place between 
the two polar circles once in the light of the sun 
at each revolution. 

Illustration, 1. In a darkened room, having in 
it only one lighted candle, it will be seen that one- 
half the surface of the globe is illuminated and the 
other half is in shade. Insert a pin at your place 
of residence, and turn the globe on its axis. It 
will come round alternately into light and shade, 
or into day and night. 

Illustration, 2. By daylight, a window or an;y 
other object may be taken for the sun, and the 
imagination can picture the illumined hemisphere 
on the side toward the sun; or the large ball of a 
lunarian can be used in connection with the globe. 



240 GEOGRAPHY. 

THE CHANGE OF SEASONS. 

The change of seasons is produced by the incli- 
nation of the earth's axis to the plane of its orbit, 
as shown by the inclination of the axis of the globe. 

Illustration. The change of the seasons may be 
t^hown by carrying the globe, with the axis contin- 
ually directed toward the north, about any object 
assumed as a sun. 

54. 

TRADE WINDS. 

The trade winds are caused by the revolution of 
the earth on its axis from west to east, in connection 
with the current of air flowing toward the equato 
rial region, to supply those portions of space from 
which the air rises by the action of the sun's heat. 

Illustration. (With the globe in hand.) It is 
supposed that the Sun is shining directly on the 
equator. Those parts of the earth's surface about 
the equator, being much heated, rarefy the air in 
contact with them. The air thus rarefied rises; 
other air from the north and south, within and be 
yond the tropics, flows in to supply the place of the 
air so elevated. But as the atmosphere partakes of 
the motion of that part of the earth's surface with 
which it is in contact, and as the surface at the 
tropics and beyond them docs not move as rapidly 
from west to cast as at the equator, since those cir- 
cles are smaller than the equator, it is plain that if 
air, with the eastward motion of the tropics, say 
900 miles an hour, were instantaneously trans- 
ported to the equator, where the eastward motion 
of the earth's surface is 1000 miles an hour, the 



r 



USE OF VPPAKATU3. 247 

ftir so transported would have a relative backward 
or westward motion of 100 miles an hour. But as 
it is not transported instantaneously, but flows with 
a moderate velocity, its westward motion, thoujjli 
considerable, is not so great. It must be remem- 
bered, that the motion toward the equator is com- 
l)ined with the backward or westward motion, giv- 
iiii; the trade winds a southwesterly direction north 
of the sun, and a northwesterly direction south of 
the sun. Where the two currents would meet, 
which is always a few degrees behind the sun, in 
its course from one tropic to the other, the equa 
torial zone of calms is found. 

55. 

VII. ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE TIME. 

it is considered 12 o'clock, M., at any place on 
the earth's surface when the sun is on the meridian 
of that place. 

But as the sun has an apparent motion from east 
to west of 15 degrees an hour, or 360 degrees in 
24 hours, evidently it cannot be 12 o'clock at the 
same time, at any two places not on the same meri- 
dian. 

Then at any place, as Boston, lying on a meri- 
dian east of any other place, as New Orleans, it 
must be 12 o'clock, or noon, before it is noon at the 
latter place, because the sun will reach the meri- 
dian of Boston sooner, in its westward course, than 
it will the meridian of New Orleans. 

Hence, if it is noon at Boston, it will be forenoon 

at New Orleans, and if it is noon at New Orleans 
11* 



1^18 GEOGRAPHY. 

it will be afternoon at Boston. While tlien abso- 
lute time is the same in all places, relative time is 
later at places lying east of us, and earlier at places 
lying west of us. 

Jllustratt'on. Insert a pin at Boston, another at 
New Orleans, assuming any object on a horizontal 
lino with the globe for a sun. Turn the globe on 
its axis, from west to east, it is seen that the pin at 
Boston comes under the assumed sun before the 
pin at New Orleans. 

56. 

VIII. MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES. 

Take a narrow tape, and make it the same length 
of the equator on the globe. Divide by folding 
into 5 equal parts. Mark with pencil or pen these 
divisons. In the same manner subdivide these di- 
visions into 5 other equal parts. Call each 1000 
miles. Again divide these as many times as con- 
venient. 

A scale is now made by which distances, from 
place to place, may be ascertained, the comparative 
length of different routes or voyages known, etc. 
These, as fast as ascertained, should be committed 
to memory, or written down for future reference. 
This is found to be an amusing and instructive 
exercise, valuable in family or school, to keep chil- 
dren out of mischief, and to imprint on their 
minds some of the most important geograpical 
knowledge. 



r 



USE OF APrARATUS. 



249 



67. 




H 



This instrument is designed to illustrate all the 
phenomena resulting from the relations of the Sun, 
Moon and Earth, to each other. The most impor- 
tant of these phenomena are the succession of day 
and night ; the change of seasons ; the change of 
the Sun's declination ; the diiferent lengths of day 
and night; the rising of the Sun north of east in 
summer ; the changes of the Moon ; solar and lu- 
nar eclipses ; spring and neap tides ; the later 
daily recurrence of the tides; the length of days 



250 GEOGRAPHY. 

on the Moon ; the appearance of the Elarth to ob- 
servers on the Moon ; the harvest Moon ; the dif- 
ference ol a synodical and sidereal revolution of the 
moon ; the precession of the equinoxes and the 
difference of a solar and sidereal year. All these 
phenomena may be explained by the Tellurian, 
with a simplicity that brings them within the com- 
prehension of a child. Before passing to an ex 
planation of the manner in which they may be il- 
lustrated, I shall describe the construction of the 
instrument, and give directions for its adjustment. 

58. 

CONSTRUCTION. 

The Tellurian, as seen by the cut, consists of 
the stand ; the arm ; the three fixed pulleys ; the 
handle; the three movable pulleys; the inclina- 
tion wire; the moon's orbit plane ; the extension 
screw, and the three balls representing the 8un, 
Earth, and Moon. Of these three balls, the globe 
ia three inches in diameter ; the small ball, seven- 
rights of an inch, giving nearly the true propor- 
tionate size of the moon ; and the large ball, five 
inches, the true proportionate size of which would 
be nearly twenty-eight feet. The proportionate 
distance of the moon from the earth would be 
seven and a half feet; while the earth, should be 
placed at the distance of two thousand nine hun- 
dred and sixty-nine feet from the sun. It is per- 
ceived, that an instrument, giving the true propor- 
tionate sizes and distances, could not well be con- 
structed : and were it constructed, would require 
either a telescope or microscope to esxamine it. 



\ 



i:SK OF APPARATUS. 251 

Notwitlistiimrnii; the j>roportions are not preserved 
in the Tellurian, the causes of the various phe- 
nomena appear much more clearly than if tliey 
were. 

Of the three fixed pulleys, only the upjicr and 
larger one is seen in the figure. There are tliree 
corresponding movable pulleys on the end of the 
arm, each moving independently of the other. The 
upper pair of pulleys, one movable and one fixed, 
being connected with a cord passing around both, 
serve to give motion to the moon around the earth. 
The middle pair, connected by a cord in a similar 
manner, give a slow motion to the moon's orbit 
plane. The lower pair being both of the same size 
and connected by a cord, preserve the parallelism 
of the inclination wire or axis of the earth. 

The extension screw is for the purpose of tight 
ening the cords when they become slack by use. 

59. 

ADJUSTMENT. 

In setting up the instrument, screw the upright 
Ftandard, to which the arm and fixed pulleys are 
attached, into the circular base ; place the movable 
pulley, with the orbit plane, on the wire at the end 
of the arm; arrange the cords around the respec- 
tive pairs of pulleys, crossing the cord which goes 
around the upper pair, (this is the longest cord of 
the three;) place the globe on the inclination wire 
and the sun or large ball on the wire in the handle ; 
then turn the stand so that the dividing line, be- 
tween Aries and F'isces, on the horizontal circle on 
the large Gxcd pulley, shall be on the east side of 



252 



GEOGRAPHY. 



the center; again, by applying the thumb and fin 
ger 10 the lower and movable pulley, turn the in- 
clination wire and globe on it, so that the north 
pole of the globe shall be directed toward the north 
star. The instrument is now adjusted. 

If by means of the handle the arm is turned 
around, it will be observed, that the sun and earth 
revolve around a common centre of gravity; that 
the sun revolves on its axis by coming in contact 
with the large pulley ; that the moon revolves 
around the earth thirteen times while the earth 
goes around the sun once ; that the parallelism of 
the earth's axis is maintained, always pointing 
toward the north. The revolution of the earth, on 
its axis, is effected by s^triking the globe lightly with 
the finger. The motion of all the balls should be 
from west to east, in the southern part of their orbits. 

60. 

DAY AND NIGHT. 

The succession of day and night is best repre- 
sented by placing a short lighted candle on the 
center of the large fixed pulley, in a darkened room. 
Half of the 2:lobe will then be seen to be in lio-ht 
and half in shade. Insert a small pin at your place 
of residence on the globe, as nearly as may be, and 
turn the globe on its axis with the finger, from west 
to east on the south side. It will be noticed, that 
the place, thus designated, is alternately in light 
and shade, or in day and night. And, if the pin 
is supposed to be an observer, it will see the sun 
coming into view, or rising over countries or seas 



;:ij 



USE OV APPARATUS. 2;)J 

at the cast, and passing around over its mcriilian 
disappearing or setting behind countries and seas 
lying in the west. 

01. 

VARIATION IN LENGTH OF DAY AND NIOIIT. 

If the arm of the Tellurian, adjusted as already 
explained, be turned so as to bring the globe di- 
rectly west of the yellow ball or sun, ^ both poles 
will be illuminated by the light of the candle, as if 
proceeding from the Sun, and all parts of the globe, 
excepting the poles, will come successively and 
equally into light and shade, when it is made to 
revolve equally on its axis. At this point, then, in 
the earth's orbit, as well as at the opposite point, 
the days and nights will bo equal all over its surface. 
Hence, the east and west points of the Earth's orbit 
are called by astronomers equinoctial points or equi- 
noxes, from cquus, equal, and nox, nocfis, night. 

But as the earth passes on in its orbit from the 
western equinox toward the south, since the axis 
continues directed toward the north, the light will 
gradually extend over the north pole and recede 
from the south pole. The northern hemisphere 
will thus become more than half illuminated, and 
the southern proportionally less. Now, it will be 
perceived that any place north of the equator will 
remain longer stnd longer in light at each diurnal 
revolution as the earth advances, until it arrives at 
the southern point of its orbit. Here the light 



• When the words Sun, Earth, and Moon, beorin with cajiitals, thoy 
rcffcr to the bodies, in the heavens; Int when they l)fgln with small 
letters^ they refer to the balls which reprcscut them ou the Telluriao 



254 GEOGRAPHY. 

w\\\ extend over the north pole twenty-three and a 
half degrees, and fall as far short of the south pole, 
fivins: the iono;est possible day to the northern 
hemisphere, and the shortest possible night. 

Notice, too, that all places north of the Arctic 
Circle will make more than one entire revolution 
in light, and thus have a day of more than twenty - 
four hours in length. 

Again, turn the arm and carry the globe through 
die northern part of its orbit, it will readily appear 
why the inhabitants of the northern hemisphere 
have nights longer than days in that part of the 
Earth's orbit. 

That both poles must have days and nights of 
BIX months each, is also apparent. 

62. 

THE CHANGE OF SEASONS. 

The inclination of the Earth's axis, together with 
its parallelism, influences more or less all terrestrial 
phenomena. The attentive pupil must have already 
seen, that the variation in the length of day and 
night is the result of this cause. If so, he is pre- 
pared to understand in what manner the change of 
seasons is brought about by the same means. 

Let the arm of the Tellurian be directed toward 
the south, then the earth's axis will be inclined to- 
ward the sun, and a line extending from the earth's 
center to the sun's center, will pass through the 
tropic of Cancer. Hence, an observer on that tropic 
would, at noon, see the Sun directly overhead when 
the Sun and Earth are in this position with regard 

' 1 



USE OF APPARATUS. 25b 

to each other, and all the inhabitants of the north- 
ern temperate and frigid zones would see the Sun 
at its greatest altitude. This must be midsummer, 
or as it is termed by astronomers, the summer sol- 
stice. Observe that the longest day occurs at this 
time in the northern hemisphere, and that the Sun 
is more nearly vertical when on the meridian at all 
places north of the tropic of Cancer than at any 
other time of the year; /. r., the Sun shines a lar- 
ger portion of the twenty-four hours on this part 
of the Earth's surface, and emits a larger amount of 
rays on any given space than at any other time. 

Now, move the arm around toward the east ; as 
the inclination of the axis continues toward the 
north, it becomes less and less inclined toward the 
-^un as the earth moves on to the eastern part of 
its orbit. Being at the eastern point, it is neither 
inclined to nor from the sun, but ihc extremities or 
poles are equally illuminated. As before shown, 
this is one of the cfjuinoxes, and as it succeeds 
summer, it must be the autumnal equinox. The 
sun is now vertical at the equator; in other words, 
"is crossing the line." 

Again, turn the arm toward the north ; observe 
that the north pole is carried into darkness, while 
the south pole is brouirht more and more into liirht. 
[f the earth has reached the north point of its orbit, 
the axis is incliiuMl away from the sun, and the 
Bouthcrn honiisphere is more directiv under its 
influence. The sun will now be verticil at the 
tropic of Capricorn, and shine a longer portion of 
the twenty-four hours on the southern hemisphere, 



256 GEOGRAPHY. 

and witli grcat€;r intensity, while the days are 
shorter, and the rays more oblique on the northern 
hemisphere than at any other time of the year. 
Here, then, nuist be the winter solstice to the in- 
habitants of the northern hemisphere. 

Carry the arm around toward the west, at the 
same time make the globe revolve on its axis; ob- 
serve that the days become longer and longer in the 
northern hemisphere, while the earth is prosecut- 
ing this part of its annual journey. The globe 
having arrived at the west point of its orbit, occu- 
pies the same relative position with regard to the 
candle as the Earth with regard to the Sun, at the 
vernal equinox. Tlie sun is now visible at both 
poles, and is again crossing the line. 

Thus having followed the round of the seasons, 
we cannot but admire the simplicity of the mecbqn- 
ism which produces such varied and beautiful re- 
sults. Were the axis perpendicular to the plane 
of the orbit, there could be no change of seasons, 
but unvarying arid heat would prevail in the equa- 
torial regions; while perpetual frosts would reign 
over a much larger portion of the Earth's surface 
than under the existing arrangement. 

The tropics, so called, because at these lines the 
Sun turns back toward the equator, depend for their 
locality upon the axial inclination, being necessa 
rily as many degrees from the equator as the axis 
IS inclined from the perpendicular. Were the axis 
to lie down on the plane of the orbit, the tropics 
would be in the poles, and the polar circles at the 
equator. 



I I 
I I 



CSE OF APPARATUS. 257 

63. 

RISING AND SETTING OF THE SUN NORTH OF THE 
EAST AND WEST POINTS OF THE HEAVENS. 

Since the Sun never conies further north tlian the 
tropic of Cancer, how is it, that morning and eve 
ning, even in our hititude, it casts its rays on the 
north side of our dwellings and other objects dur- 
ing the summer months? 

In order to understand this the more readily, let 
us consider the appearance of the Sun at the poles. 
About the 20th of March it begins to make its ap- 
pearance, gradually rising into view as it makes the 
entire circuit of the horizon every twenty-four 
hours. Higher and higher it rises, passing around 
the heavens, almost entirely parallel with the ho- 
rizon, until, at midday, corresponding to our mid- 
summer, it reaches the altitude of twenty-three and 
a half degrees, and from that time winds downward, 
and in three months is lost again behind the con- 
tinent of ice. 

At any place within the Arctic Circle, except 
at the north pole, once in the year at least, the sun 
will be seen directly in the north, as can be shown 
by the globe of the Tellurian. Below the Arctic 
Circle and near it, the sun will be seen just dipping 
below the horizon, a few degrees west of the merid- 
ian, and soon emerging as many degrees east of it. 
The farther south the observer is situated, the lon- 
ger will the sun continue below the horizon, and 
the nearer will it rise and set in ^he east and west 
point« of the heavens; in other words, the further 



258 GEOGRAPHY. 

north he is situated, the nearer will it rise and 
sot to the north point of the horizon. 

64. 

SIDEREAL AND SOLAR DAY. 

While the Earth is revolving on its axis, it is 
likewise revolving around the Sun ; hence, an en- 
tire diurnal revolution which brings any locality 
under the same star, will not bring it into the same 
relation to the Sun. 

Let the arm of the Tellurian be directed toward 
the north ; insert a pin at any point on the equa- 
tor of the globe ; let the pin be directed toward 
the sun, (yellow ball,) which will be exactly south. 
Now turn the globe once on its axis, at the same 
time moving the arm forward a short distance to 
ward the west. When the pin is brought around 
again toward the south, it is not directed toward 
the sun as before, but must make a part of another 
revolution to come round in the direction of the 
sun. The first is the sidereal ; the second, the 
solar revolution or day. Therp will, of course, be 
one more sidereal revolution than solar in a year, 
however few or many there may be of either, unless 
the revolutions are in opposite directions, when 
there will be one less. 

65. 

REVOLUTIONS OP' THE MOON. 

The Moon has at least three revolutions : the 
first on its axis, the second around the Earth, the 
bhird around the Sun. 

The Tellurian represents the Moon as present- 



USE OF APPARATUS. 



259 



mi: always the same side to the Earth. This is 
true to nature, and it gives tlic moon one revolu- 
tion around tlie earth, as, obviously, all sides of 
the moon will be brought successively under the 
eye of an observer situated beyond the moon's 
orbit. The fact of one side being presented always 
to the Earth, has been attributed to the greater 
epccitic gravity of that side, making it hang down 
toward the Earth.* 



66. 

CHANGES OP TBE MOON. 

The changes of the Moon are the result of its 
opacity and its revolution about the Earth. We 
have new and full Moon once in twenty-nine and a 
half days, from the fact that its revolution around 
the Earth once in twenty-eight days, in connection 
with the common motion of these bodies around the 
Sun, bring them all into the same relation with re- 
gard to each other in that period. This period is 
called a hoiation or lunar month. 

Placing a strong light on the Tellurian, as be- 
fore, turn the arm so as to bring the moon between 
the sun and earth. Evidently the dark side of the 
moon is now toward the earth, and this is the 
position of the three bodies at new moon. Thus 
situated, the sun and moon are said to be in con- 
J unction. 

Turn the arm again, and bring the moon 
around on the side of the earth opposite the sun. 



•NoTB.— The 'lii erpi ce of a Bldereal and a synodical revolution car 
bpsh'wiiiii :i n)i;ner sin ilar to that of illustrating the differecce of a 
si'lereil and oli <&y. 



'^60 GEOGiRAPflY. 

The iliiiminnted side of the Moon is now present- 
ed to the Earth. Tliis is full moon, and the Sun 
and Moon, in this position, arc said to be in opposi- 
tion. As the Moon's orbit is not on the same 
plane with the Earth's orbit, the Moon is some- 
times above and sometimes below the plane of the 
Earth's orbit or rclipiir at new and full. Hence 
we do not always see exactly the same hemisphere 
at full moon, or the crescent pointing in the same 
direction at new moon. The horns of the crescent 
will, however, always point away from the Sun, 
whether above or below ; or, as we say, the Moon 
rinm high or runs low ; all of which can be clear- 
ly shown by the Tellurian. 

The intermediate phases, as the quadrants and 
octants, are also seen by the Tellurian, but perhaps 
more clearly by the use of the Lunarian. 

67. 

ECLIPSES. 

An eclipse is nothing more than an obscuration 
of the Sun or Moon by the interception of the Sun's 
rays. 

An eclipse of the Sun, or a solar eclipse., is 
shown by turning the Tellurian arm until the 
moon casts a shadow on the earth's surface. An 
eye, situated at the place of the shadow, could not, 
of course, see the luminous part of the candle. So, 
on the earth's surface, wherever the shadow of the 
Moon falls, the Sun can not be seen, as it is in an 
sclipse. A solar eclipse commonly happens at new 
moon, and can be total when the Moon's center is 



USE OF APPARATUS. 2G1 

in, or very near, the ecliptic, or wlicn the Moon i?, 
at one of its nodes, ^^ince, as shown by the Tellu- 
rian, the IMoon is sometimes above and sometimes 
below tlie ecliptic, at this period, it is obvious that 
an eclipse can not happen at every new moon. 

A partial eclipse will occur where rcr a part of 
the Sun's disk is obscured by the intervention ol' 
the Moon. 

A lunar eclipse is shown by turning- the Tellu- 
rian arm until the moon comes into the shadow of 
the earth, either partially or entirely ; uiviiiu- a 
partial or total eclipse. Neither of these can hap- 
pen at every full moon, in consequence of the obli- 
quity of the moon's orbit to the ecliptic. The 
construction of the instrument is such that the 
moon's orbit plane will come into the same rela- 
tion to the earth's plane once in eighteen revolu- 
tions of the earth around the sun. This ar- 
ranrrement corresponds to the Chaldaic period in 
nature, wliich gives the recurrence of nearly 
the same order of eclipses once in eighteen years 
and ten days. By means of this period, the an- 
cients were enabled to foretell eclipses, but with no 
g>'eat degree of precision. 

68. 

TIDES. 

Tides are the result of the unequal attraction of 
the Moon on the water on the Earth's surface, and 
on the inflexible mass of the Earth itself. They are 
influenced likewise by the Sun, and by the form 
and position of coasts and harbors. 



262 GEOGRAPHY. 

Sinco the water under the Moon is 4,000 miles 
nearer to it than the centre of the Earth, it uill be 
attracted by as much greater force than the Earth 
as the square of 240,000 is greater than the squai-e 
of 236,000. Hence the water is heaped up under 
the Moon, and this elevated mass of water will pass 
around the Earth as far as continents will permit, 
once in twenty-four hours, or as often as the Earth 
revolves under the Moon. This will account for a 
tide once a day. But there are two tides daily. 
How is this ? 

Since the Earth's centre is 4,000 miles nearer to 
the Moon than the water on the Earth's surface 
opposite the Moon, the Earth is drawn away from 
this water on its surface opposite the Moon. And 
as the water under the Moon is drawn away from 
the Earth, so the Earth is as much drawn away 
from the water on the side opposite the Moon 
Hence, there will be a tide opposite the Moon as 
well as under it, and the two tides will be equal, or 
nearly so. This will give any place within the 
reach of tide-water two tides in a day. 

60. 

LATER DAILY RECURRENCE OF TIDES. 

Tides happen about fifty minutes later every day, 
in consequence of the motion of the Moon in its 
orbit around the Earth. 

This may be shown by giving motion to the 
Tellurian arm and the globe on its axis at the same 
time. Observe that any place on the earth must 
make more than an entire revolution to come 



USE OF APPARATUS. 2G3 

around the second time under tlic moon, whereas if 
the moon were stationary, then a complete revolu- 
tion would bring the same meridian again under it. 

70. 

SPRING AND NEAP TIDES. 

It is found by observation, that the influence of 
the Sun on the tides is about one-fourth as great as 
that of the Moon. 

By the Tellurian, it is shown, that when the Sun 
and Moon are cither in opposition or in conjunc- 
tion, their influences combine to produce a tide 
equal to the sum of the tides they would produce 
separately. This is called a spring tide, and will 
happen either at new or full moon. 

Again, it is shown, that when the Moon is at its 
({uadratures, the tide will be equal to the difl'er- 
ence of the Sun's and Moon's tides separately. 
This is called the neap tide. 

The highest tide possible, at any given place, 
will happen under the concurrence of the follow- 
ing circumstances, viz : The Earth in its perihe- 
lion, the Moon in its perigee, at one of its syzygies, 
and in the zenith or nadir. 

71. 

PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES. 

The precession of the Equinoxes is the recur- 
rence of the Equinoxes or any other period of tho 
year before the Earth has made an entire revolution 
around the Sun. 

It it is found that a year is twenty minutes and 
12 



:i64 GEOGRAPHY. 

seventeen seconds less than the tinje req lired for 
an entire revolution. This is occasioned by a 
change, not on the inclination of the Earth's 
axis, but on the direction of that inclination. To 
show this clearly, take hold of the lower movable 
pulley with the thumb and finger, and turn that 
pulley half the way round. In so doing, you will 
cause the axis of the Earth to point south instead 
of north, but with the same inclination still. In 
nature, it requires 12,934 years to make the 
change, and 25,8(38 years to bring the axis back 
again into its present position. Now, if you start 
the arm from the east, where the globe will be in 
the position of the autumnal equinox, and while 
you turn the arm, you at the same time turn the 
axis so that it shall incline easterly, you have only 
to carry the arm around to the south to bring the 
globe into the position of the autumnal equinox 
again ; i. e., a quarter of a revolution of the axis 
produces a precession of t'he equinox — equal to a 
quarter of the Earth's orbit. The precession, then, 
we sec, is equal to the part of a revolution that the 
axis makes. It really makes a change of 50'M 
in a year, and the precession is the same, and it 
requires twenty minutes and seventeen seconds for 
the earth to pass that part of its orbit. Hence, as 
before stated, the year is so much less than the 
time required for an entire revolutioQ. 



PART V. 

METHODS OF TEAOHING MENTAL, 

PRACTICAL, AND THEORET 

TCAL ARITHMETIC. 



INTRODUCTION. 



MENTAL ARITHMETIC. 

The objects aimed at by the true teacher for 
his class in Mental Arithmetic, are — 

1st. Distinct mental conceptions. Some teachers 
make use of numeral frames, and a variety of other 
expedients, to aid their pupils in realizing the 
powers of numbers. 1 am of the opinion that such 
aids may be relied on too far; so far as to retard 
the operation of the mind in forming its own con- 
ceptions. The large majority of pupils will ad- 
vance more rapidly and self-relyingly. without 
any visible representations whatever, and should 
they be needed, marks on the blackboard answer 
every purpose. 

2d. Clear views of cause and effect. From the 
very first exercise in Arithmetic, the relation of 
cause and effect is ever before the mind ; equally 
as much in answering the question, One and one 
are how many? as in the most complex problems^ 
requiring a long continued course of analysis and 
synthesis for solution. In fact, every operation is 






i I 



268 ARITHMETIC. 

but an application, in some form, of the law ol 
cause and efiect. Hence Arithmetic, and especially 
Mental Arithmetic, affords a fine field for the cul- 
tivation of the reasoning faculties. There is no 
better, if properly managed, 

3d. Certainty in the courses of reasoning. This 
should be aimed at just as much, in the simpler 
steps, in the first lessons, as in the higher walks 
of more advanced stages. For if entire certainty 
is not secured in the preliminary steps, what else 
may be expected of the more advanced exercises 
than conjecture, doubt and uncertainty in the 
processes and results? 

4th. Precision in language. This implies not 
only a clear distinction of abstract and concrete 
quantities, and the use of the necessary language 
to make such distinction without tautology, if pos- 
sible; but it does not admit of any forms of false 
or doubtful syntax in the enunciation or solution 
of questions. 

5th. A iliorougli understanding of Fractions. — 
There is no aspect in which a Mental Arithmetic 
class can appear to so good advantage before an 
examining committee, as in the ready and success- 
ful manaiz-ement of fractional numbers. A knowl- 
edge of powers and multiples is indispensable to 
free use of fractional quantities. 

6th. Rapidity in tlie solution of questions. Cer- 
tainty should be aimed at from the very first but 
as the class advances emulation should be brought 
into play in exciting the minds of the ivhole class 
to rapid combinations and evolutions. Most 



INTRODUCTION. 209 

astonisliing results may be attained, even with 
sluggish minds, in this direction. 

7th. Artijices for abridging iahor. These should 
never be introduced till the scholar is well drilled 
in the full and logical forms of procedure, but 
then they may be used with great interest and 
eflFect. 

8th. Cultivation of Memory. To this end no 
book should be used by the class, during recita- 
tion ; and at every lesson more or less impromptu 
and ''random questions" should be given. Ex- 
amples of these will appear in the following pages 

WRITTEN ARITHMETIC. 

The objfx'ts to be aimed at in Written Arith- 
metic, are — 

1st. Correctness in operation. Written Arith- 
metic looks more particularly to operations in 
dollars and cents, in the counting room, workshop, 
or market; and the teacher who should tolerate 
any want of accuracy in the operations of the 
pupil would be false to his interests. 

2d. Rapiditi/ in operation. When it is known, 
that by practice, two or three long columns of fig- 
ures can be added with as much rapidity as one is, 
ordinarily, it is seen that there is abundant room 
for improvement, not only in scholars but in most 
teachers. Multiplication and division are equally 
susceptible of condensed operations, yielding re- 
mote results 'u "less than no time" to the expert 
calculator 



270 ARITHMETIC. 

3d. Artifices for ahridging labor. Every possi- 
bility of* cancellation should be familiar, every 
contraction in the fundamental rules, every use of 
aliquot parts, and factors, should be so frequently 
and so long dwelt upon by a class, that the "short- 
est method" will always afterward present itself, 
in business life, as if by intuition. 

4th. Ready and reliable means of proof. As 
there are no "answers" to real business transac- 
tions, except such as the business man obtains for 
himself, it seems to me altogether preferable to 
accustom scholars in practical arithmetic, to prove 
their work from the first. Of course the " best 
methods" should be sought by the teacher, and 
practiced by the pupil, till he has little occasion 
for " the answer in the book." Books without 
answers are desirable for this end ; but the teachei 
should be the more watchful and exacting in th-e 
matter of proofs, if the text book is furnished with 
answers. 

THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 

The objects to be aimed at in Theoretical 
Arithmetic, are — 

1st. A tliorough understanding of all the peculiar 
and common j^roperties of numbers as high as twelve. 
The demonstration and use of these properties are 
equally useful and interesting. 

2d, Development of reasoning faculties. Geom- 
etry is frequently resorted to for this purpose and 
for no other. Theoretical Arithmetic is no less 
effectual, if pursued with as much rigor as the sub 



INTRODUCTION. 271 

joct demands. The dcflnitions and axioms should 
be as clearly stated, and the propositions as well 
connected, and as logicahj proved as those of 
Geometry, while for the great majority cK pupils 
there is immeasurably a greater demand for the 
use of the principles of Arithmetic than for those 
of Geometry. 

3d. Cultivation of the power of accurate expres- 
sion of thovglit. There is no d(3partment of science 
where we find so much looseness in definitions and 
rules, as in Arithmetic, notwithstanding the multi- 
tude of text books on this subject, and the higher 
claims of each successive author, in this particular. 
This very looseness in authors afi'ords the critical 
teacher a fine field, if not for display of his own 
acumen; yet for arousing the energies of his pupils 
to excel their text book. 

4th. A Icnoicledge of the curiosities of the science. 

5th. An acquaintance with the icorhs of various 
authors. It will be found a very desirable prac 
tice, in pursuing a course of Theoretical Arith 
metic, to consult the various authors who have 
written on the subject. A ijiore liberal and sym- 
metrical view of the science is thus obtained than 
from any one author. Respect for authors is thus 
diminished, while the love for t*ic truth is cu- 
hanced. 

12* 



METHOD OF TEACHING MENTAL ARITH- 
METIC TO PRIMARY CLASSES. 



LESSON I. 
1. 

First Step — How to secure Books. A course 
•similar to tliat described on page 184, Sec. 2, niiy 
be pursued. 

Second Step — Counting. Teacher. — Children, 
how many of you can count a hundred? [A ma- 
jority raise their hands.] As many as can count 
ten may raise the hand. [Nearly all hands rise.] 
Now we will see. I will make some marks on the 
blackboard and you may all count them as I make 
them. 

The teacher makes the marks, (circles,) on the 
board, and the children count in concert. He 
soon learns the ability of the class in counting: 
and drills those unable to count ten in counting 
marks, buttons, fingers, desks, windows, panes of 
^lass, etc., till they can tell the number of objects 
as high as ten. They may then be required to 
make as many marks on the board as the teaclicr 
designates. 
(272; 



r 



MENTAL ARITHMETIC. 273 

2. 

TniRD Stkp — Pricliminary Drill on Lr<:ssoN I. 
Ray's Mental Arithmetic. 

I'rarher. — Children, you may now open your 
books to Lesson I., on page 8, as many as have 
books. Those who have no books may look over 
others' books to-day, but all who remain in the 
class must have books to-morrow. We can have 
no looking over after to-day. 

Have you all found it? Charles, you may read 
the first question, beginning "James had an ap- 
ple." 

Charles reads the question. 

Teacher. — How many can answer it? As many 
as can may raise the hand. [All hands rise.] 
Sarah, you may answer it. Sarah. — Two. Teacher. 
Susan, you may read the next question. Susan 
reads. Teacher. — How many can answer this ques- 
tion? The teacher will be careful to call on those 
pupils who are the most backward or inattentive. 

In a similar manner, this lesson, or so much of 
it as the class can bear, is passed over in prepara- 
tion for studying it. 

Teacher. — Now I wish you to study this lesson 
which you have been reading, so that you can 
answer all the questions without the book, when 
you come again to recite. I will read the ques- 
tions and you may answer them witliout looking 
on the book at all. How many will study this 
lesson and learn it well? [All hands rise.] 

The cla^s is now dismissed in order, and notoe 
written to parents for the necessary books. 



274 MENTAL ARITHMETIC. 

LESS ON I I . 

a. 

First SrEP— Recitation. The teaclier reads 
the question to the whole class, and calls on one 
pupil by name for an answer. He will be careful 
not to omit any^ but he should not pursue the 
order in which they sit. lie may follow the order 
of his vegister for this class, forwards or backwards, 
taking all the names as they stand, or taking them 
alternately, backwards or forwards : or he may 
depart from this order, when he sees any scholar 
inattentive, by giving him a question. 

Making Figures. As each scholar answers hie^ 
question, he may go to the blackboard, and make 
the figures corresponding to the numbers used in 
the question and answer, and perform the opera- 
tion by adding the figures as in Written Arithmetic. 
Of course, the mental operation comes first and 
the answer by this means. With a primary class 
it is much better thus to combine Written with 
Mental Arithmetic as they proceed. 

Second Step — Preliminary Drill for next les- 
son. 

Remark. The class will pursue the course de- 
i t5cribed in Lesson II, for many days, until they 
acquire a knowledge of counting, of the use of 
figures, and the power of making them correctly 
on the slate or blackboard, till they can perform 
the operation of addition and subtraction by either 
the mental or written process; but when multipli- 
cation is reached the regular steps of a solution 
should be taught, whi'ih are as follows : — 



[ I 



j^ENTAL ARTTIIMETIO. 275 

4. 

ADVANCED LCSSON. 

Kecitation. Teacher reads a quesiion for tho 
whole class: "At 7 cents apiece what will o mel- 
ons cost?" After waiting till most of the clans 
have raised their hands as each has obtained the 
result^ he speaks the word " class." Then all who 
have obtained the result raise their hands together. 
He calls on one pupil bv name to give the result; 
then on all who agree with this result to raise 
their hands ; then on all who have another result, 
to raise their hands; then on some individual, from 
his register, in order, by name, to give a solution 
of the question, which is done in the manner do 
scribed in the following section. 

5. 

SOLUTIONS. 

First Step — Scholar rises and repeats the 
Question. If he fails, the teacher says, " Class, 
who can give him the question?" Hands rise. 
The teacher then calls on some one to repeat the 
question. He repeats it without rising. First 
scholar, still standing, also repeats it. 

Second Step — Scholar gives the Analysis, or 
explains the method of solving the question. If 
he fails, pursue the same course to correct him as 
in the first step. 

Third Step — Scholar performs the Operations, 
liud obtains the result. 

Fourth »Step — Scholar gives the Conclusion, 
as nearly as possible in the language of the ques- 
tion. 



276 MENTAL ARITHMETIC. 

Remark. After the teacher has drilled the clasi^ 
in solutions; in multiplication, they may return to 
addition for a few solutions. 

6. 

FIRST EXAMPLE. — ADDITION. 

Teacher reads, James had five cents, and he 
found seven more; how many had he then? When 
it is seen by hands rising that nearly all the class 
have obtained the result, he says " Class." Then 
all who have solved the question raise their hands 
together. 

Teacher. — Henry, what is the result? 

Henry. — Twelve. 

Teacher. — How many agree? [Hands rise.J 
How many have a different result? [Hands rise.] 
Mr.ry. Mary. — Twelve cents. Teacher. — Very 
well. Sarah, you may give the solution. 

Sarah, rising, repeats (not reads) the question. 

First Step. James had five cents, and he found 
seven more, how many had he then? 

Second Step. He had as many as the sum of 
five cents and seven cents. 

Third Step. Five cents plus seven cents are 
twelve cents. 

Fourth Step. Therefore, if James had five 
cents, and fourd seven more, he then had twelve 
cents. 

7. 

SECOND EXAMPLE. — SUBTRACTION. 

The teacher having read the question — 
Maria., rising, gives the solution thus : 



MENTAL ARITHMETIC. 277 

First Step. A boy having eight marbles, lost 
five of ihem, h( w many had he left? 

Second Step. He had as many as the differ- 
ence between five marbles and eight marbles. 

Third Step. Eight minus five arc three. 

Fourth Step. Therefore, if James, having 
eight marbles, lost five of them, he had three mar- 
bles left. 

8. 

third example— addition and subtraction. 

Petcr^ rising, repeats the question. 

First Step. A lady bought a comb for twenty 
five cents, some pins for ten cents, and some tape 
for six cents; she gave the shopkeeper seventy-five 
cents ; how much change ought she to receive? 

Second Step. She ought to receive as many as 
the difference between seventy-five cents and the 
sura of twenty-five cents, and ten cents, and six 
cents. 

Third Step. Twenty-five plus ten, plus six, 
are forty one. Seventy-five minus forty-one are 
thirty-four. 

Fourth Step. Therefore if a lady bought a 
comb for twenty-five cents, some pins for ten cents, 
and some tape for six cents, and gave the shop- 
keeper seventy-five cents, she ought to receive 
forty-one cents in change. 

9. 

FOURTH EXAMPLE— multiplication. 

Samuel, rising, gives the solution thus: 
First Step. At four dollars a pair, what will 
five pairs of boots c )st? 



278 MENTAL ARITHMETIC. 

Second Step. If one pair cost four dollars, five 
pairs will cost five times four dollars, 

Third Step. Which are twenty dollars. 

Fourth Step. Therefore, at four dollars a pair, 
five pairs of boots cost twenty dollars. 

10. 

FIFTH EXAMPLE. — DIVISION. 

Susan, rising, gives the solution thus: 

First Step. If a man laid out one hundred 
dollars for cows, and paid twenty dollars for each 
cow he bought, how many cows did he buy? 

Second Step. If one cow cost twenty dollars, 
he bought as many cows for one hundred dollars 
as twenty is contained times in one hundred. 

Third Step. Which are five times. 

FouRTn Step. Therefore, if a man laid out one 
hundred dollars for cows, and paid twenty dollars 
for each cow that he bought he bought five cows. 

11. 

sixth EXAMPLE. — DIVISION. 

William, rising, gives the solution thus : 

First Step. If you should buy six oranges for 
hventy-four cents, how much would you pay for 
each orange? 

Second Step. To pay one cent for each orange 
would require six cents ; then you would pay as 
many cents for each orange as six cents is con- 
tained times in twenty-four cents. 

Third Step. Which are four times. 

Fourth Step. Therefore, if you should buy six 
oranges for twenty-four cents, you would pay four 
cents for each orange. 



..J 



MENTAL ARITHMETIC, 279 

Remark. In oxumples of this kind the pupil is 
inclined to take it for granted that one kind of 
concrete quantity is contained in another kind of 
concrete quantity. Hence his analysis is likely to 
be thus: "Since you buy six oranges for twenty- 
four cents, each orange will cost as many cents as 
six is contained times in twenty-four." 

Six what is contained times in twenty-four what? 
should be asked by the critical teacher. 

For further examples and solutions I refer the 
teacher to Ray's Mental Arithmetic. 

12. 

VARIATIONS m THE MANAGEMENT OF CLASSES. 

1st. If a class is large, it will be better for each 
pupil, as his name is called from the register, to 
take but one step in a solution. Thus more of the 
class will be reached in a given time, and more 
general attention secured with less diflficulty. 

2d. It may be well occasionally to combine the 
second and third steps in one, i. e., let the pupil 
give the rRocEss and result of each operation pro- 
posed in the method of solution ; thus, 

Ilenry^ rising, gives the solution. 

FinsT Stkp. If three tuns of hay cost twenty- 
one dollars, wh^U will five tuns cost? 

Second and Tiiiud Steps. If three tuns of hay 
cost twenty-one dollars, one tun will cost one-third 
of twenty-one dollars, which is seven dollars; and 
if one tun cost seven dollars, five tuns will cost five 
times seven dollars, which are thirty-five dollars. 

Founnr Step. Therefore, if three tuns of hay 



J 



280 



MENTAL ARITHMETIC. 



cost twenty-one dollars, five tuns will cost thirty- 
five dollars. 

13. 

RANDOM EXERCISES. 

A random exercise is such as is engaged in by 
the class without previous study, the teacher 
leading. These should be commenced with small 
integral numbers; and the teacher should proceed 
slowly in his lead, at first bringing in only addi- 
tion and subtraction. As a class improves under 
the exercise, the operations of multiplication and 
division may be introduced ; also, involution and 
evolution; also, fractional quantities. 

I wnll give a few examples. 

14. 

Example 1st, Teacher. Class, take seven, add 
live, add eight, add five, subtract nine, subtract 
eight. How many have the result? 

The pupils, as many as have followed the teacher 
and have obtained the final result, are expected to 
raise their hands. 

Teacher. — James, James. — Twelve. Teacher. 
How many agree? [No hands rise.] How many 
have a diiferent result, [Hand rises.] Sarah, 
Sarah. — Eight. Teacher. — How many agree with 
Sarah? [Hands rise.] Very well. How many 
can give the operations aloud? [Hands rise.] 
Susan. Susan. Take seven, add five, which gives 
twelve; add eight, which gives twenty; add five, 
which gives twenty-five; subtract nine, which gives 
sixteen ; subtract eight, which gives eight, the final 
result. Teacher. — Very well, Susan. 






MENTAL ARITH>)ETIO. 281 

15. 

Example 2d. Teacher. — Class, take fourteen, 
divide by seven, multiply by twelve, multiply by 
two, add two, divide by twenty-five ; how many 
have the result? 

The same course is pursued in bringins; out all 
the scholars, in ascertaining how many have fol- 
lowed the question, and how many have not, as 
before. 

16. 

Example 3d. Teacher. — Class, take nine, square 
it, subtract seventeen, take square root, double it, 
take the square root, take the square root ; how 
many have the result? 

17. 

Example 4th. Take one hundred, multiply by 
nine-tenths, multiply by eight-ninths, multiply by 
seven-eighths, multiply by six-sevenths, multiply 
by five-sixths, multiply by four-fifths; how niany 
have the result? 

18. 

Example 5th. Take eight, divide by four-fifths, 
divide by five-sixths, divide by six-sevenths, divide 
by seven -eighths. Ho\7 many have the result? 

19. 
Example 6th. A monkey started up a mast 
sixty feet high ; he ran up twenty feet, down eight 
feet, up fifteen feet, up seventeen feet, up six feet, 
jumped up five feet, and where was he? 
24 



282 MENTAL ARITHMETIC. 

20. 

The variLtions of random exercises are, of course, 
endless. They serve for variety, and if properly 
managed will arouse any desirable amount of e-n- 
thusiasm in a class. They should not, however, 
be relied on, to any great extent, as a means of 
suitable training, in Mental Arithmetic. 

I will give one more example, involving a few 
contractions, which may be reached by the class in 
the appropriate successive drills on each contrao 
tion. 

21. 

EXAMPLE IN CONTRACTIONS. 

Take eighteen, multiply by five, multiply ly 
twenty- five, multiply by ten, take the square root, 
add ten, multiply by twelve and a half, divide by 
thirty-three and a third, multiply by ten, divide 
by sixteen and two-thirds, and what is the result? 

Explanation. 18x5=18x^=90, 90x25=90 
X'r=2250. 160xl2i=160x'r=2000, 2000-^- 
33J=2000xtoo=60. " 60x10=600. 600-M6^^ 
=600xTi>-=36. 



\ 1 
- ( 



METHODS OF TEACHING WRITTEiN 
ARITHMETIC. 

PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 
22. 

Remark 1st. "Written Arithmetic should be 
oonimenced with Mental Arithmetic. Scholars in 
Mental Arithmetic should be provided with slates, 
and they should be permitted to work out the 
examples, while studying them., on the slate. They 
should also be required to work them on the slate 
or blackboard after having solved them mentally. 

23. 

Remark 2d. In the management of a large 
class in Written Arithmetic, the principal difficulty 
to be overcome is thai of reaching all the schol 
ars at every recitation. Unless this is done schol- 
ars are liable to remit their efforts, especially on 
such days as they may think the chances are 
against their being called on to recite. 

This difficulty must be met, if possible, and 
every scholar must know that he will be held re- 
sponsible at every recitation, for a thorough prepa- 
ration of all the lesson. If in the division of time 

(283) 



kJ81 WRITTEN ARITHMETIC. 

among the several classes it shall be found impos- 
sible to give time enough to Arithmetic, to reach 
every scholar, in each recitation, it will be better 
to have the recitation every other day, and the 
Grammar recitation every alternate day. Thus 
double the amount of time could be had for 
each recitation in these two leading subjects, by 
having them occur only half as often. By proper 
management in the use of blackboards and slates, 
every scholar in the largest class may be reached. 

24. 

Remark .3^/. The blackboard should be suffi 
ciently capacious, if possible, to accommodate all 
the class at once. To this end all the space on the 
walls of the room not taken up by windows and 
doors, to the height of six or seven feet, should be 
occupied by blackboard. It is sufficient to paint a 
hard firm wall that is laid on brick. If laid on 
lath, it should first be covered with the thickest, 
firmest wall paper that can be had, and then paint- 
ed black. If, then, there is not room enough tu 
accommodate all the scholars at the same time, 
those who cannot find room on the board for 
working examples, can work them on their slates 
as they sit on the recitation seats ; and the teacher 
can pass around and look over the work of each 
scholar as often as a new example has been as- 
signed and wrought. 

25. 

Remark Ath. In the earlier steps, especially, it 
is better to give the same example to all the class, 



I r 



•WRITTEN ARITHMETIC. !^85 

to work simultaneously. But in review lessons, 
and in a more advanced class, it is better to assign 
different examples to each pupil, unless some ex- 
amples more difficult than others should be as- 
signed to several different pupils, or to all of them. 

26. 

Remark bth. Some teachers think it necessary 
that scholars should understand the reasons of 
every rule, before they are permitted to use it 
in working out examples. This is plausible, but 
will be found to work badly. It is better, gener- 
ally, for scholars to learn the practical working of 
a rule first, and thus have their curiosity excited 
to inquire why they have to do so and so, as the 
rule directs, to obtain the result; rather than to 
force the reasons upon them before they have any 
desire to know them. With a few of the quicker 
scholars, the latter plan will work well enough ; 
but with the majority of most classes the former 
course is decidedly preferable. There is no trouble 
in feeding a hungry child, but the same food only 
disgusts him when he has no appetite. Fir>t ex- 
cite the desire to know; then administer to the 
mind's cravings. 

27. 

Remark G(h. It hardly seems desirable to mv 
to require scholars to give arithmetical rules pre- 
cisely in the language of the book. I prefer that 
they should describe the processes in their own lan- 
guage ; a rule in Arithmetic being '• a description 
of a process for obtaining a required result." It 



28G 



WRITTEN ARITHMETIC. 



is more necessary, perhaps, to require the rules 
verbatim from beginners. 

28. 
Remark 7th. Books without answers are pref 
orable, for the reason that a strong temptation le 
removed to copy the answers from the book with- 
out solving the questions; for the reason also that 
scholars are more self-relying, and are made, b^ 
this means, better practical reckoners and account- 
ants. If answers are not desirable in Mental 
Arithmetic, why in Written? 

29. 

Remark Sfh. I would, if possible, avoid any 
text book in Arithmetic or Algebra which has a 
printed key in market. Keys are paralyzers, 
nuisances, and the teacher should be particularly 
watchful that keys are not resorted to by pupils in 
any of his classes. 

30. 
Remark 9^'/^. The skilful teacher will always 
prepare his class for any difficulty which may meet 
them in the advance lesson. He may explain the 
difficulty orally ; he may solve an example, not in 
the book, which shall meet the difficulty ; he may 
give the class a preliminary drill on a rule, or on 
a series of more difficult examples under any rule, 
or in miscellaneous examples under a number of 
rules. Such preparation, judf'iiously given, more 
than anything else, is calculated to keep up the 
ambition of all a class, by removing all excise? 
for laziness and discouragement. 



I I 



AVRITTEN ARITHMETIC. 287 

31. 

Remark lO/A. Small scholars should be re- 
quired to bring their examples, wrought on slates 
or on paper, to the recitation, which the teacher 
will examine, a-s the Fmsi' Step in every recitation. 
This will not prevent their working them again 
during the recitation. 

32. 

Remark llfh. The manner of conducting dif- 
erent recitations in Written Arithmetic are so 
similar that, I shall give but two Lessons — as ex- 
amples. 

33. 

PRIMARY LESSON. 

First Ste^> — The Teacher examines the Slate 
or paper of each pupil, to determine how much of 
the lesson assigned has been prepared, and how 
well the work has been executed. He points out 
the errors as he proceeds, giving as much encour- 
agement in every case as possible, and as little 
censure. 

Second Step — Recitation of Rules or Tables 
assigned for the lesson. 

Third Step — Working the Examples on the 
slates or blackboard. As in few schools there is 
blackboard enough to accommodate all the schol- 
ars, they will be called up in sections to the board 
without books, and will follow the orders of the 

teacher. 

13 



288 ' WRITTEN ARITHMETIC. 

34. 

Order \st. — Prepare the hoard. This is •lone 
by erasing any former work, and dividing the 
board by vertical lines into equal spaces for each 
scholar. Each scholar draws a line at his right. 

Order 2d. — Write the example. The teacher 
then dictates the example and all write it, both 
those at the board, on the board; and those on the 
recitation seat, on their slates. 

Order 3tZ. — Perform the example. The teacher 
now has opportunity to note the readiness and 
correctness of each pupil in his work as he pro 
ceeds, whether at the board, or on the seat; or the 
failure or errors of any, or their inclination to 
copy from others' work. 

Order \tli. James, you may explain your work, 
James proceeds to explain the example as he has 
solved it; and the teacher, at any error, either in 
thejj'ork or in the explanation, looks for the rais- 
in2; of hands by other members of the class, and 
if no pupil notices the error, he calls attention to 
it by the question. Why do you thus? or by any 
other that the case may require. When James 
has concluded his explanation, the class is called 
on for criticisms. After these are settled, the 
teacher may inquire, " How many understand 
James' explanation?" Hands rise. '• How many 
do not understand the example?" If hands rise 
he may call on James again to explain the exam- 
ple, or on some other pupil, or he may explain it 
himself. 

Ordir ^th. — Be seated. 






WRITTEN ARITilMETlC, 289 

35. 

The teacher then calls up another f.,ection. and 
proceeds in a similar manner with ihem in the 
working of another example ; and so on till the 
time has expired, or so far expired that he can 
only have time for the fourth step. 

Fourth Step — Pi'.kliminauy explanation and 
DRILL for the next lesson. 

36. 

ADVANCED LESSON. 

Remarh. The same course may be pursued 
with an advanced class as that described for a pri- 
mary class, or the following method may be used. 

First Step. Teacher. ~A.i\j who have reports 
to give may prepare their work on the board. 

Scholars, then, to whom any classification, de- 
monstration, or explanation was assigned at any 
previous recitation, for this recitation, take their 
places at the board and make any necessary prepa- 
ration, as writing out the classification or work 
necessary for a demonstration. 

Second Step — Recitation of Rules or Tables 
by the rest of the class. 

Third Step — Scholars at the board give thts 
demonstration; and the same order of criticism 
from the class and from the teacher, as was de- 
scribed in the Primary Lesson, is pursued. 

37. 

Fourth Step — "Working the examples. The 
course to be pursued is the same as described in 
the Primary Lesson, except that it will be found 



200 WRITTEN ARITHMETIC. 

necessary to give each pupil a ditferont example. 
These may be assigned by number to each pupil, 
he having the book in hand from which to take 
his data. 

Fifth Step — The explanation of examples. 
It is supposed that the teacher, in a preliminary 
drill has himself explained the working of the 
rule; and demonstrated the principles on which 
its different points are based. In this stage of the 
recitation, one pupil is called for the demonstration 
of one principle in connection with his example; 
and another for the demonstration of the same 
principle or another in connection with the ex- 
planation of his example. All under the same 
course of criticism, from other scholars and teach- 
er, as has been before described. 

Sixth Step — Preliminary explanation ivxu 
DRILL for next recitation, 



L 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 

38. 
Remark. Instead of presenting the method of 
teaching Theoretical Arithmetic, I shall give si 
condensed view of the subject itself; leaving it for 
the teacher to apply the methods before described 
for Grammar and Geography. 

T. — ARITHMETIC. 

f (Euclid, B. C. 300, Greek Notation. 

I Ancient, -| Archimedes, B. C. 250, Greek Notation. 
1 JDiophantes, A. I). 250, " ^ 

History, •{ f Lucca de Bnrga, A. U. 1484, Arabic Notation. 

Modern i >'"-hol--^^ Pike, A. I). 1776, " 
'1 Daniel Adams, A. D. 1801, 
[ Warren Colburn, A. D, 1825, Mental Arith'o. 

'Definition, Solution, Rule, Demonstration, ■! . 'f.*^^' 

' / indirect. 

Proposition ^ '^'"o'^lem, Corollary, Scholium, Lemma. 

' " / Theorem. 

Hypotheses, Axiom, Discussion. 

U-t n .-4 ^ Majjnitude. 
nit, Quantity »,?,., , 
' •"< Multilnde. 

£ r I Integral, ^ ^ Abstract, ) 

% \ \ Fractional, \ ] Concrete, i 

. a j \ Cardinal, ^ i Prime, / 

<j^ [ ) Ordinal, \ \ Composite, 1 

iAs to uses: — Abstract, Applied. 
As to characters : — Particular, General. 
As to operation : — Mental, Written, TheoreticaL 

^Preliminaries !5;«^^^*«";. 

/ iVumeration. 

f Addition, / ■. 

Fundamental I Multiplication, 1 ^"crease. 

Operations, \ Subtraction, ) ts- ■ 

I Division, ' i ^""'""^"'°- 

f 1 Comp. Numbers, 2 Com. Fractions, 

3 Decimals, 4 Ratio and Proportion, 

5 Percentage, 6 Partnership, 7 AIlo- 

g^ition, 8 Exchange, 9 Partnership, 

I 10 Inv()liiti(m, 11 Evolution, 12 Men- 

l suration, 13 Analysis. 

f29n 



Terms, - 



Even, ) I 
Odd, \ \ 
Rational. 
Surd. 



Simple, 
Comp'nd, 



Divisiono, 



Applications, 



i'J'I TIIEGRKTICAL ARITHMETIC. 

39. 

DEFlNITIOxNS, EXPLANATIONS AND REMARKS. 

Arithmetic. The Science of Numbers 

History. Notice of the aiost prominent wn 
ters, and of the progress of the Science of Arith- 
metic. 

Ancient History. That which applies to time 
previous to A. D. 1400. 

Modern History. That which applies to time 
subsequent to A. D., 1400. 

Euclid was the first writer on Mathematics 
whose works have come down to us. He wrote 
on Geometry and Optics, as well as on Arithmetic. 
He established a school for Mathematics at Alex- 
andria in Egypt, which Ptolemy Lagus, the Egyp- 
tian Monarch, attended. When the pupil inquired 
of Euclid, if there was no easier method of learn- 
ing Mathematics, Euclid replied, " Th'.rc is no 
royal road to Geometry." 

Althouo-h he was the first writer on MatJieniat- 
ics, he was indebted to Thales and Pythagoras, 
celebrated teachers, for much contained in his 
works. 

Arciumedes flourished in Syracuse. He made 
many discoveries in Mathematics, and inventions 
in Mechanics. One of the former was the ratio of 
the cylinder to the inscribed sphere ; one of the 
latter was an arrangement of mivrors by which he 
Bet the Roman fleet on fire. Ee also disco <^ered 
the means of obtaining the specific gravi'i,y of 
bodies. Several fragments of his writings are 
extant, but nothing on Arithmetic. 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 203 

DioiHANTUS flourished at Alexandria. The time 
ftt whicii he wrote is not) definitely known. But 
hi^J works remain, both on Arithmetic and Aljie- 
bra. He was the first writer on Algebra. 

Lucca de Borga is worthy of note, as being the 
first European writer who made use of the Arabic 
Notation. 

40. 

Lefinitiox. Such a description of an object aa 
includes everything of the kind, and excludes 
everything else. 

Soijtion. a process by which a required re- 
sult is obtained. 

Rule. A description of a general process for 
obtaining a required result. 

Demonstration. A course of reasoning by 
which the propriety of a Rule is made obvious; 
also a course of reasoning by which a proposed 
truth is established. 

Direct Demonstration. One that commences 
with known truths; and by a course of reasoning 
establishes the proposed truth. 

Indirect Demonstration. One which assumes 
the proposed truth to be false, and then proves 
that an absurdity will result from the assumption. 
This is also called a Reductio ad absurdum. 

Proposition. That which requires a solution, 
or a demonstration. 

Problem. A question proposed for solution. 

Theorlm. a truth requiring a demonstration 
to establish it. 



494 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 

Corollary. A truth deduced from a preceding 
proposition. 

Scholium. A remark on a preceding proposi- 
tion, showing its application, restriction, or cxten- 
Bion. 

Lemma. A subsidiary proposition. 

lIvroTHESis. A supposition made either in the 
Btatement or demonstration of a proposition. 

Axiom. A self-evident truth. 

Discussion. A course of investigation by which 
the properties, relations, and applications of any 
number, proposition, or rule, are demonstrated. 

41. 

Quantity. That which can be increased, dimin- 
ished, or measured. 

Magnitude. Undivided Quantity ; also that 
form of quantity which answers the question, How 
much? 

Multitude. Quantity made up of distinct parts; 
also that form of quantity which answers the ques- 
tion, How many? 

Unit. A single thing, either a whole or a part. 

Number. One, or more, or less; also an expres- 
sion for Quantity. 

Integral Number. An expression for one or 
more whole or entire units. 

Fractional Number. An expression for one 
part of a unit, or more than one equal parts of a 
unit. 

Abstract Number. A number taken without 
reference to substance, time, space, or their prop 
ortics. 



r 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 21)5 

Concrete Number. A number applied to su'r^- 
stnnce, time, space, or their properties. 

P]vEN Number. One which can be divided by 
two without a fractional quotient. 

Odd Number. One which cannot be divided 
by two without a fractional quotient. 

Simple Number. One in which the units ex- 
pressed, are all of the same value. 

Compound Number. One in which the uni*a 
expressed are of different values. 

Cardinat, Number. One used to denote multi- 
tude, or how many. 

Ordinal Number. One used to denote the 
order or rank of an object. 

Prime Number. An integral number whi<-)i 
can be divided by no other integral number than 
itself and unity without a fractional quotient. 

Remark. There is no term in Mathematics 
which has had so many bungling, worthless defini- 
tions, as this. 

Ray'.« definition: "A prime number is one that can only be 
exactly divided by itself and unity." Since every number can 
be oxactl}' divided by every other, w th either .in integral o: 
fractional quotient, there is no prime number according to ihi;' 
definiticjn. 

Again, in Ray's Higher Arithmetic, we find thi^ : "A prime 
number is one that can be exactly divided by no other whole 
number but itself and unity." Since every whole number will 
exactly divide every other number whether fractinnal or integral, 
there can be no prime number according to this definilioi;; 
moreover, the grammatical sequence of hut to oth^r, i.«, to sny 
the Ica^t, inliarm"ni<iu3. 

Again, Thnin|iS(in'a definition is still worse: *" A prime num- 
ber is oni which cannot bo i)roduced by multiplying any two i r 
more numbers together, or which cannot be exactly divided by 
iny whole number except a unit and itself." Since every num- 
ber can be produced by multiplying itself by unity, or some in- 
tegral number by some fractional number, there is no prime 
number according to Thompson. 

Loomis' definition involves the same abeurdity. 

Leach & SwaiTs (Jetinition is paftsable. 

T>Hvi<-'j' 'letinitioii i.«^ tlio best, most simiile and ooiH-ii^« 



296 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 

Rational Number. One whose exact root cau 
bo expressed by figures. 

Surd Number. Que whose exact root cannot 
be expressed by figures. 

42. 

Classes. Results of arrangement according to 
a given plan. 

Abstract Arithmetic. That form of Arith- 
metic which makes use of abstract numbers. 

Applied Arithmetic. That form of Arithmetic 
which makes use of concrete numbers. 

Remark. Book-keeping and Mensuration may 
be mentioned as examples of Applied Arithmetic. 

Particular Arithmetic. That form of Arith- 
metic which makes use of figures to express par- 
ticular values. 

General Arithmetic. That form of Arithme- 
tic which makes use of letters to express general 
values. It is also called Algebra. 

Mental Arithmetic. That form of Arithmetic 
in which the operations are carried on entirely in 
the mind, without the use of visible characters. 

Written Arithmetic. That form of Arithmetio 
in which the operations are carried on by the aid 
of visible characters. 

Theoretical Arithmetic. That form of Arith- 
metic which investigates principles, and demon- 
strates rules; also, that gives a clear, connected. 
and systematized arrangement of all the p7inciples 
and rules involved in the subject. 

43. 

Preliminaries. Preparatory processes. 



[ 



r 



TUEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 



20: 



FuNDAiiENTAL OpERATiONfl. Processer^ on which 
all others ar3 based; or those without which no 
others can be performed. 

Applications. All other processes than the 
preliminary and fundamental. 



II. 



44. 

-NOTATION. 



Sign? 



I C Diminution ^-j, a)b(, ^ 

of Relation =,:,::,>, <. 
of Deduction /. , 

.of Aggregation , (),[], j }. 

f History, 

I Forms, I, V, X, L, C, D, M, " 

Roman) | Origin of each. 

Literal,) 1 R«ti"^ of increase, i? 



Oharacters, - 



[Laws of arrangemei 



Arabic 

or 
.Figural 



1 



(5 

nt. ■J2 

History, 

Forms, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0. 

Significant, or digits. 

or naiii'ht. 



{Significant, 
Zero, cypher, 
Separatrix. 
Origin of each. 
Radix, 
Fundamental Law. 

^^'->!lS^' 



45. 

DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS AND REMARKS. 

Notation. Any visible method of indicating 
operations or relations ; also of expressing quan- 
tity. 

Sign. A mark or combination of marks to in- 
dicate ;mi operation or relation, deduction or ag- 
gregation. 

(JpKHAT o.v. Process involved in a solution. 



298 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 



I>CREARE. Augmentation. The act or result 
of making larg )r. 

DixMiNUTioN. Decrease. The act or result of 
making less. 

IIelation. Bearing. 

46. 

The sign -|- signifies add to; and is read, pluf- 
It has its origin in the fact that two lines thus 
placed seem to be the simplest manner of express 
ing the act of addition. 

The sign X signifies mulilply hij^ and is read 
into. It has its origin in tallying, or keeping 
accounts of several successive additions of the same 
quantity, which consists in crossing obliquely oth- 
er marks. This is an abridged or simplified form 
of tallying. 

The sign of contiguity, as represented in ab, is 
used only in letters, or in Algebra. 

The sign ()", or the exponent, signifies that the 
quantity immediately before it, or the quantity 
contained in the parenthesis to which it is attached, 
is to be multiplied by itself a number of times, one 
less, than there are units in the sign. 

The sign — signifies subtract froni^ and is read 
minus. It seems to have originated in the sign 
-j- ; one of the marks having been taken away, 
suggesting the idea of subtraction ; and the mark 
left, a difierence. 

The sign -— signifies divide hy; and is read, 
divided hy. Its origin is plainly, that of dividing 
or separating one line into two parts, by the use 
of another. 



IHEutlET'CAL ARiTIl.M KTIC. 299 

T'he siirn ^ signifies divide Inj^ or tlie result of 
having divided one quantity by another, and is 
read ore?-, as a over b; or in this example, ].], sev- 
enteen over thirteen. 

The sign a)b( signifies that the quantity at the 
I right of the first curved line is to be divided by 
the quantity at the left. In Algebra the divisoi 
is placed at the right of the line curving to right. 

The sign y^, or the radical sign, signifies that 
the square root of the quantity to which it is pre- 
fixed, is to be taken. If a figure is placed before 
the sign, then such a root is to be taken as is indi- 
cated by the figure, which is called the index. 

47. 

The sign = signifies equallly^ and is read, is 
'.qual to. Its origin is found in the fact that it i^ 
the simplest method of expressing to the eye the 
idea of equality. 

The signs ^<^ signify inequality, and are 
read is greater than, and is less than; the greater 
quantity being placed at the opening, and the less 
at the apex of the angle. 

The sign of ratio : is an abridged form of the 
sign of division. In the French form of writing 
the ratio, however, the divisor is placed before the 
fiign, and the dividend after it. It is read, as, «s, 
in the first couplet and to in the second. 

The sign of proportion : : is an abridged form 
of the sign of equality ; the extremities only of the 
line being used. It is read so is. 

Tlio sign of deduction .'. seems to have its ori- 
ff}n in the fact that there are throe terms in a syl- 



300 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 

logisra ; the two first being true the third must 
follcv.. It is read therefore. 

48. 

The signs of aggregation are the bar , which 

Bisnifies that the numbers over which it is placed 
are to be taken together as one number ; also, the 
parenthesis, (); the brackets, []; and the braces, 
j j , which signify that the quantities enclosed by 
them respectively are to be taken together, as one 
quantity. 

Remark. The use of technicalities not hitherto 
defined in this work, for the explanation of the 
signs, is not strictly philosophical ; but as this 
classification is only used in reviews, and as the 
signs are an inseparable part of Notation, the de- 
mands of the case seem to warrant this departure 
from rigid philosophical usage, in the arrange 
meut. 

49. 

Characters. Any written or visible forms used 
to express numbers. 

Verbal Characters, or Verbal Notation, 
Visible words used to express numbers. 

Roman Notation. That notation which makes 
use of seven Capital Letters, to express numbers. 

Arabic Notation. That which makes use of 
ten figures to express numbers ; also a separatrix. 

50. 

History of the Roman Notation. Notwith- 
standing the Roman alphabet seems to be but a 
modification of the Greek alphabet, the Romana 
adopted an entirely difi'erent notation for numbers. 



THEORETICAI, A 1! I'l li .M Kl i<\ "^'H 

While the Greek notation ninkes use of the letters 
in their original order and numler to exjuess 
numbers, the Eoman notation, in part, seems lo 
have been in use before the Roman people adopt- 
ed the Greek letters or formed an alphabet at all, 
as their origin will show. The several capital let- 
ters, which more nearly corresponded to the origi- 
nal marks of the notation, were subsequently 
adopted. 

Origin of the Roman Characters. In count- 
ing, or in keeping an account, it is obvious that 
one or more vertical lines is as simple a method as 
could be adopted for the first few units. The let- 
ter I was afterwards used as most nearly resem- 
bling; such a vertical line. 

When the number equal to the fingers and 
thumbs on both hands had been reached, it was 
natural and easy to cross the vertical lines signi- 
fying ten. In transferring this method of tally- 
ing, or of keeping accounts, it was after a while 
discovered that a simple cross would answer aa 
well as all the marks of the original tally. Hence 
a cross waa adopted for ten, and afterwards an X 
for the cross. 

Either half of the cross was used for five, but 
the letter V, corresponding to the upper half, was 
finally adopted. 

The initial of Centum, which signifies one hun- 
dred, was adopted, after the introduction of the 
alphabet, to save the trouble of writing ten crosses 
or X s. 

Either half of the letter C in itb angular form C 



302 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 

was used to represent fifty; but since the letter L 
corresponds to the lower half it was finally adopted. 

The initial of Mille, which signifies one thou- 
sand, was also used to represent one thousand. 
Following the law of taking halves, a half of thigi 
letter was taken for five hundred. It was finally 
supplanted by the letter D, the letter which 
seemed most nearly to correspond to it. 

Ratio of Increase. From the origin of these 
characters it is seen that they increase in the 
alternating ratio of five and two. 

Laws of Arrangement. 1st. A letter, not ot 
greater value, being placed after another gives the 
sum of the values represented by the letters sepa- 
rately. 

2d. A letter of less value being placed before 
another, gives the difi'erence of the values repre- 
sented by the two letters standing separately. 

3d. A horizontal line drawn over any letter or 
letters increases their value one thousand times. 

51. 

History of the Arabic Notation. The Ara 
bic figures were introduced into Europe during 
the tenth century, by the Crusaders. From the 
Arabic these figures have been traced to the sacred 
books of the Brahmins in India. The Brahmins 
slaim that they are a gift of the god Brahma. 
They are probably the invention of some inge- 
nious priest of that heathen deity. 

Origin of the Figures. In keeping accounts, 
one mark would naturally represent one. Two 
horizontal marks with a connecting line would 



J 



THEORETICAI ARITIlMiriC. 3G3 

stand for two, thus: £^. Tbrce horizontal marka 
with connecting lines would stand for three, thus: 
3 ; and four marks, either arranged in the form 
of a square or triangle, would stand f c r four, thus : 
n^ T"* I'i^'C marks in this form ^ was the original 
tigure five of this notation. Six marks, thus: 5, 
the original figure six. The figure eight was made 
bj placing two squares near each other, thus: ^; 
and seven, by omitting one of these marks, thus: 
□ ; nine by adding one more mark to the figure 
eight, thus: ^. The zero was originally a circle, 
and seems to have been sucro-ested from counting; 
around the fingers and thumbs, as held in a circu- 
lar position. Hence once around was denoted by 
the figure 1, and 0. Twice around by 2 and 0, 
and so on. 

From this last arrangement seems to have beeri 
suggested the law of the notation, in which its 
superior utility consists. For, by placing any 
other figure in the place of the zero to make the 
numbers between ten and twenty, we have the law 
established. 

Separatrix. a mark used in the Arabic nota- 
tion to separate units from tenths, in other words, 
integers from decimal fractions. 

Remark. The separatrix is always written, or 
supposed to be written, at the right of the unit's 
place. Though not called a figure, it is still the 
most important character in the notation. 

Radix of the Arabic Notation. The number 
expressing the number of times the value of any 
fi<rure is increased or diminished as it is removed 



..J I 



304 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC 

3ne place to the left or right, to or from the sepa 
ratrix. It is ten. 

Fundamental Law of the Arabic Notation. 
Every significant figure has its value multiplied 
by ten every time it is removed to the left, towards 
or away from the separatrix; and divided by ten 
every time it is removed one place to the right, 
towards or away from the separatrix. 

52. 

Remark \st. Figures at the right of the sepa- 
ratrix express, obviously, by the law of the nota- 
tion, fractional quantities; as tenths, hundredths, 
etc. Such figures are called decimal figures, and 
the ciuantities exnressed by them are called deci- 
MALs, or decimal fractions. 

Remark 2d. The removal of figures is often 
accomplished relatively by changing the place of 
the separatrix. This caji also be done in whole 
numbers, by annexing cyphers or other figures; 
and in the fractional figures by interposing cyphers 
or other figures between the separatrix and the 
given figures. 

Simple value of a Figure. Its worth when 
standing in the first place at the left of the sepa- 
ratrix. 

Local Value of a Figure. Its simple value 
multiplied or divided by such a power of ten as is 
indicated by the order of the place that the figure 
occupies at the left or right :»f the place of unity. 



TilEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 305 

53. 

III. NUMERATION. 

Ordors. — I'nits, Tens, Hundreds, Thousands, c:.C. 

Periods. — Units, Thousands, Millions, Billions, cto. 

( sr .. , I French, 
pahonal, \y^^^„^-^^^ 

Methods, I Practical, | [^P?;*'^""^- 

i r» • I I by Tens. 

Derived, i . ii i j 
l_ (by MuiiUreds, etc. 

54. 

DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS AND REMARKS. 

Numeration. Any method of expressing the 
values of figures in words. 

Orders Places occupied by the several figures 
being counted towards the left and right from 
the separatrix. 

Units. The first order, at the left of the separ- 
atrix ;,also, the first order of integral numbers or 
integers. 

Tens. The second order of integers. 

Hundreds. The third order of integers. 

Tenths. The first order at the right of the 
separatrix; also the first order of decimal fractions. 

Hundredths. The second order of decimal 
fractions. 

Periods. Groups of orders, named and used to 
facilitate numeration. 

French Method. That method of numeration 
in which three orders constitute a period. 

English Method. That in A\1iich six order? 
/ constitute a period, 

Rrniark. The names of the orders in bot'i 
methods are the same as far as the ninth, or hun- 
dreds of" .iiillions ; after which thev take different 



3UG THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC 

oames, the tenth being called in the French meth- 
od, billions, and in the English method, thousands 
of millions. 

55. 

Names of the Periods. — 1st, Units. 2d, Thousands, 3(1, 
Millions. 4th, Billions. 5th, Trillions. 6th, Quadrilliuns. 7th, 
Quintillions. 8lh, Sextillions. 9th, Septillions. 10th. Octil- 
lions. 11th, Nonillions. 12th, Decillions. 13th, Undecillions. 
14th, Duodeciliions. 15th, Trideeillions. 16th, Quadrodecil- 
lioiis. 17th, Quindecillions. 18th, Sexdecillions. 19th, Septo- 
docillions. 20th, Octodecillions. 21st, Xonodecillions, 22d, 
Vingintillions. 23d, Unvingintillions. 24th, Duo-vingintil- 
lions, etc. 32d, Tngintilliuns. 42d, Quadro.iiintiliions. 52d, 
Quingintillions. 62d. Sexagintillions. 72d, Septuagintillions. 
82d, Octngintillions. 92d. Ninogin-lillions. 102d, Ccntilliuns. 
103d, Uncentillions. 104th, Duocentillions, etc. 202d, Duo- 
■•entillions, etc. 1002d, Millillions, etc. 

Derived Methods of Reading Numbers. These 
iUii readings with the assumption of some othei 
order than units as the base. 

Example. — 304.06 may be read as tens, thus : 
thirty tens, and four hundred and six thousandths^ 
of a ten. The same number may be read as 
tenths, thus : three thousand and forty tenths^ and 
six tenths of a tenth. 

56. 

TOPIC LIST FOR DISCUSSION OF FUNDAMENTAL 
OPERATION. 

1. Definition. 

L. Terms, and definitions. 

3. feigns — form, signification, reading. 

4. Rules, Demonstrations. 

5. Proofs, Demonstrations. 

6. Comparison with other operations 

7. Contractions, DcmoDstratiuns. 

8. Use of n(?gative quantities. 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. HC? 

Remark. The four fundamental operations may 
Bach be discussed very thoroughly by following 
this Topic List as a guide in the investigation. 
I shall omit many of the most obvious considera- 
tions in my discussion, as these can be obtained 
from all Arithmetics. Pupils, however, should be 
require!^ in these discussions to reach every point, 
whether obvious or obscure. 

57. 

DISCUSSION OF ADDITION. 

5. Proof 1st. Add the columns downwards. 

Proof 2d. Reject the Nines from each quan 
tity, also from these excesses so obtained, also 
from the sum of the quantities; then, il' the ex- 
cess of the excesses of the several quantities is 
equal to the excess of the sum of the several 
quantities, the work is supposed to be right 

Demonstration. Since by the sixth Theorem — 
Ray's Algebras — the difference of the same powers 
of any two numbers is divisible without a fraction- 
al quotient, by the difference of the numbers, any 
power often, minus any power of one, is divisible 
by ten minus one. In other words, any power of 
ten is one greater than a multiple of nine. This 
may be expressed thus : 

(10)°— (1)° is divisible by 10—1 without a 
fractional quotient, or (10)° — 1 is divisible by 9, 
without a fractional quotient. 

But if a unit of any integral order gives one for 
a remainder, when divided by nine, then any fig- 
ure in any order will give itself for a remainder 
when its lo( al value is divided by nine. Hence 



308 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 

the figures expressing any integral quantity will 
express so many remainders, when the quantity is 
separated into the parts expressed by the local 
values of the several figures used to express it, and 
each part is divided by nine. Now if the sum of 
these figures, or remainders, be divided by nine, 
the true remainder for the who^e quantity will be 
obtained. Thus, 7896, separated into parts as 
iescribed, gives 

7000 and 7 remainder, 
800 and 8 " 

90 and 9 " 

6 and 6 " 

The true remainder from the given quantity is 
thus obtained by rejecting the nines from these 
figures, either as they stand in the vertical column 
or in the given quantity. 

58. 
One example will suffice to show the process of 
Rejecting Nines, and of proving addition by thia 
process. 

EXAMPLE FOR PROVING ADDITION BY REJECTING 

NINES. 

4 y Excesses 
3) 



r789G 

Quantities, } 45G7 

(3864 



S-! /->«-).->«-■ t n ^ { from the excesses 

urn, lb32< 1 final excess, j ^^^^ ^^^ ^^..^ 

Process. First quantity. 6-|-8=14, which 
gives 5 as an excess, 5-j-7=-12, whicb gives 3 as 
an excess 3 is placed in the column of excesses. 
It will be noticed that no attention is paid to the 
figure 9 



THEORETICAL A R ITU .^1 KTiC. 3(19 

Second quant if I/. 7-f-6^13 ; 4. excess. It will 
be noticed that no attention is "iven to 4 and 5, 
as they are equal to nine. 

T'hird quantUt/. 4-|-6=10 ; 1, excess. l-|-8 
:^9, hence 3 is the excess of the third (juantity. 
Rejecting nine from these excesses, we have 1 for 
a final excess. Rejecting nine from the sum of the 
quantities, which is done by simply noticing that 
7-|-2=9 and 3-|-6=9, 1 remains as the excess of 
the sum of the quantities. This being equal to 
the final excess of the quantities as before obtained, 
the work is supposed to be right. 

The concluding link in the chain of demonstra- 
tion is this : Since we have found the remainders 
of the several quantities, when divided by nine, to 
give a final remainder equal to the remainder from 
the sum of the several quantities, the sum is sup- 
posed to be correct. 

Remark 1st. Any other figure would answer 
as well as 9 for this form of proof, save that 9 
gives us its remainder more readily by this meth- 
od of rejection, than other figures would their re- 
mainder, by the process of division. 

Remark 2<L This property of nine, viz.: that 
it will divide any number tvith the same remaind<r, 
as that which the sum of the figures, expressing the 
number gives, xchen divided by nine, results obvi- 
ously from its being one less than the radix of the 
notation. If the radix were eight, seven would 
have the same property. 



\ 

I 



310 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 



59. 

Proof 3d. Reject the Elevens from differ- 
ence of the sains of the alternate tiorures in the 
several quantities; also from the difference of the 
sums of the alternate figures in the sum of the 
several quantities ; then if the excess of the ex- 
cesses, from the several quantities, is equal to the 
excess of the sum of the quantities, the work is 
supposed to be right. 

Demonstration. Bv theorem 8th, Ray's Al^re 
"oras, the sum of the same odd powers of two 
quantities is divisible without a fractional quotient 
by the sum of the quantities. Hence (10)°-|-1° 
is divisible by lO-j-l, or 11, when n is an odd 
number. Then lO+l, 1000+1, 100,000-f 1, etc., 
are divisible by 11 ; in other words, the odd pow- 
ers of ten lack one of being divisible by 11, or give 
— 1 for a remainder. If the figure 1 in all the odd 
places taken in iis local values gives — 1 for re- 
mainders, then any other figure will give itself 
with the minus sign for a remainder, — i. e., as 10, 
1000, 100,000, or any other odd power of 10 gives 
-^1 for remainders. 20, 2000, 200,000, etc., will 
give — 2 for remainders, when divided by 11. 
Hence every figure in any odd place may be taken 
with the minus sign, for the remainder, when its 
own local value is divided by 11. 

In a similar manner, by Theorem 7th, Ray's 
Algebras, it may b-e proved that each figure in 
the even places will give itself with the plus sign 
for a remainder, when its local value is divided 
by 11. 



TIIV.ORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 311 

Now if fhe sums of these two series of remain- 
ders are equal to each other, they will cancel each 
other, and there will be no remainder when the 
quantity which the figures express is divided by 
11 ; or if these sums arc not equal, their differ- 
ence gives the same remainder as the quantity 
which they express gives when divided by 11. If 
there should be an excess of the neirative fiirures. 
the true remainder will be obtained by subtracting 
that excess from 11. Such being the case, we can 
add the two sums of alternate figures, a^nd find the 
difference of the two sums, remembering that the 
series of figures in the odd places give minus re- 
mainders. 

This process is much abridged, by subtracting 
the left hand figure of each quantity from the next, 
and the resulting remainder, from the next figure, 
aad so on. The final remainder will always be 
the remainder with the proper signs. 

60. 

EXAMPLE FOR PROVING ADDITION BY THE 
REJECTION OF ELEVENS. 

. 7896 

n ,..• 58731 
Quantities, < c,r.,-. 

^ 41 



Sum, G6874 



4-2 

-4-S 



'u_ 



from excesses 
111 the snva 



( ■- 



5 final excess, j fj!^ 

Taking the first quantity: 8—7=1, 9—1=8, 

C — 8= — 2 the excess. 

Taking the second quantity . 8 — 5=3, 7-— 3=^4, 

3— 4=— 1, 1_(— 1):^2. 
14 



612 THKOllETICAL AlilTHMLTIC, 

Taking the third quantity: 0—2=— 2, 6— (—2) 

Taking the fourth quantity: 1 — i^= — 3. 

Then the sum of these excesses, arranged at the 
rij;ht of their respective quantities, is 4-^- 

Taking the sum of the quantities : 6 — 6=0, 
S— 0=-}-8. 7— 8=— 1, 4— (— l)=-f 5. 



61. 



Demonstration of this method of finding the 
difference of the sums of alternate digits. 

Let a, h, c, d=^four ftgures expressing any quan- 
tity, including four v>rders. 

Then h — a, c — (a — b) d — [c — (b — a)] will 
represent the several steps of the subtraction. 
The last quantity, being reduced, so that each 
letter shall have its essential sign, and then ar- 
ranged, the result will be d — c-|-b — a, which cor- 
responds to the demands of the case. 

Again, take an odd number of letters repre- 
senting the figures standing in the several orders, 
perform a similar operation, and the result will 
also correspond with that obtained by subtracting 
the sum of the figures in the even placos from the 
Rum of the figures io the odd places. 

Scholium. It will be noticed that in those 
quantities expressed by ac even number of figures, 
that the process of subtraction must commence at 
the left, or the excess obtained will be afiected 
with the wrong sign. 






THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 313 

CoMPARiBON of addition with other fundanicnta! 
operations. 

1st. It is similar to multiplication ; both bein^ 
operations of increase. 

2d. It is the opposite of subtraction. 

3d. It is the indirect opposite of division. 

63. 

Contractions. 1st. The addition of two or 
more columns at once. 

2d. Multiplication is but a contraction of addi- 
tion, in the case in which the quantities to bn 
added are alike. 



64. 



Use of Negative Quantities. 

Remark \sf. The Teacher will do well to give 
his classes practice in the negative quantities un 
der all the fundamental rules. 

Remark 2d. My limits will not permit the 
discussion of the other fundamental operations; 
but the discussion becomes more interestiniz: as the 
class proceeds, from one to the other, in order. 

Remark'Sd. The contractions in multiplication 
and division are worthy of close study; and de- 
mand thorough demonstration, each of them. 
Leach & Swan have given a better varicl y of such 
Cio.n tractions than other authors. 



su 



THEOllETICAL ARITHMETIC. 



65. 



COMPOUND NUMBERS. 



Terras, — Simple Numbers, Denominate Numbers. 



f- Currency 



{National, I 
State, >• 
Foreign, J 



I Avoirdupois, 
Weight, < Apothecaries, 
I Troy. 



' Linear— Long, Cloth, 



f Tables, [taining. 

-J Standard unit, and means of ob- 

Coins — Gold, Silver, Copper, 
(Comparison of each with others, 
f Tables, 
Uses, [ing. 

Standard unit, means of obtaia- 
Comparison of each with others. 



Measure, ■ 



Superficial — Square, Land 



Solid, 



{Cubical, 
Dry, 
Liquid, 



{ Wine 

\ Beei, ^ 



Time, 



Qperations, 



f Tables, 
Uses, 
y •{ Standard unit and 
I the means of ob- 
taining. 
^ Comparison. 
{, Tables, 
( Standard unit, means of obtaining it. 

^ Addition, 1 f Hules, 

( Multiplication, ' I and 

( Subtraction, 

\ Division, 

( Ascending, | 

( Descending, J 



/■ Increase, 
Dimintition, 
Reduction, 



Demonstraftion3. 
Proofs, 
and 
Demonstrations. 



Remark. All the standard units are determined, 
directly or indireetl.y, from the length of the da}; 
or the time of a revolution of the Earth on its 
axis, as ascertained by astronomical observation. 
A pendulum, beating seconds, has a certain length. 
A linear foot is now determinc.d by the pendulum. 
Dry and liquid measures are determined by the 
number of solid feet or inches. A cubic foot of 
pure water weighs 1000 ounces, and the standard 
Dound is thus determined. 

Hence it is seen that any variation in the length 
of the day will cause a variation in all the denomi- 
nations, of every kind. 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 



315 



66. 

COMMON FRACTIONS. 

PBELIMINARIEH. 



Nnmbers, 



^ Terms— Unit, Integer, Factor, Reciprocal, Root. 

(D • \ Absolute, 

rrime, j r> i *• 

' ( Relative. 
Composite, 



'■ Properties, 



Factoring, 



Greatest 
Common 
Divi<(jr, 




Multiple, 
Power, 
f 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12. 
Demonstration of the properties of onch 
number. Remark. — Properties, of 9 and 
11, depend on their relation to the radix, 
.10. 
by inspection, 
by division. 

Scholium. — Use the primes no further than the 
square root of the number to be resolved. Demon- 
stration. 

by primes, 

by division. Demonstration. 

Divide the G. C. D. of numerators by 

the L. C. M. of denominators. 

Demonstration. 

u • i 1st. 

by primes, j 2j. 

by division, Demonstratioii. 
Divide the L. C. M. ot nutucrators by 
the G. C. D. of denominators. 
Demonstration. 



Rules, 



Rules for 
integers, 

Rule for 
Fractions, 

Rules for j 
Integers, \ 

Rule for 
Fractions, 



ESSENTIALS. 

Terms, — Numerator, Denominator, 
p. las to value — Proper, Improper, and Mixed Numben. 

'^■■' ' ] as to form — Simple, Compound, Complex, 
r Equal to 
Value, ' Greater than 
y Less than 

Numerator= Dividend, 
Denomi nator = D i visor 
Value=Quotient. 
Demonstrations. 



Unity. 



Comparison of Fraction 
with Division, 



Propositions, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 

OPERATIONS 



Reduction of 

Fractions of 

Simple Numbers, 



f Integers or mixed numbers w fractions, 
Fractions to integers or mixed numbers, 
Fractions to lower or h'gher terms, 
Compound Fractions to Simple, 
Complex Fractions to Simple, 
Fractions tt equivalent fractions, with C. D. 

I Fractions t( oq. Frac. with L. C. D. 



I I 



316 



THEOIlETICAL ARITHMETIC. 



Increase 

:ind 

Diminution, 



Reduction 
of Fractions 
of Compound 

Numliers. 



f Addition, — Sabtrnction. 

! Multiplication! r Integers by frncti .ns. 

{ ' , M IractionH by infegors. 

T^. '. . (1 Fractions by fractions, 

Division, J I M- 1 vr i \<- j v 
' ■' ^ Mixed No. Iiy Mixed rto. 

(Tract, of one denomination to friif*. of anotber 

I Inte.^ers of different denoininations to fraction 

I of higher d«^nominations, 

■{ Fractions of higher denomination t;) integers o3 

lower denomination. 

I Quantify of several denonoinations to fraction 

1_ of another quantity. 



67. 

DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS AND REMARKS. 

A Common Fraction. A Fraction whose nu- 
merator and denominator are both expressed 

Preliminaries. Preparatory steps. 

Terms. Words not otherwise introduced in the 
classification. 

Unit. One, either integral or fractional. 

Integer. A whole number, or a number con 
eisting only of entire units. 

Factor of a Number. A divisor which gives 
an integral quotient. 

Rpinark. Factors are more generally considered 
integers, unless otherwise designated. 

Reciprocal of a Number. The result of divid- 
ing unity by that number. This result is said to 
be the reciprocal of the given number. 

Remark. The reciprocal of a number may be 
obtained by changing it to the fractional form, if 
it be a mixed or integral number, and then 'nvert- 
ing the fraction. 

Root of a Number. Any factor, whether frac- 
tional or integral, which being multiplied by itself 



THEORETICAL ARITHAIETIC. ^^17 

shall produce a given number. Explaantion, 
Such a factor of a number is called, if multiplied 
into itself once, its square root; twice, its cube 
root; thrice, its fourth root; and so on. 

Classes. Results of arrangement according to 
some given plan. 

Prime Number. Any integer which can only 
be divided by itself and unity without a fractional 
quotient. 

Absolute Prime. The same as a prime. 

Relative Primes. Integers which have no 
common integral factor, save unity. 

Composite Number. Any integer resulting 
from the product of other integers than itself and 
unity. 

Multiple of a Number. Any product, \vhich 
results from taking a given number, either frac- 
tional or integral, an integral number of times. 
Such product is called a multiple of the given 
number. 

Power of a Number, The result of taking a 
number a given number of times as a factor. 

Explanation. A number taken once as a factor, 
is the number itself, and is the first power. A 
number taken twice as a factor, is multiplied, or is 
to be multiplied into itself once, and is the second 
power. A number taken three times as a factor 
is the third power, and so on. The nought power 
of every number is unity, or the result of dividing 
a number by itself. 

Remark. Pupils should be well drilled in primes 
and their rov.KRo before commencing the study of 



al8 TFTEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 

the Least Common Multiple. It is a good pliin 
*br the teacher to call for th3 primes, in concert, 
.Vom the class, and to notice which of the class 
can go the farthest in giving them. It is well for 
the class to give each prime twice in the concert 
exercise, that the slower pupils may learn them. 
The powers of the smaller primes should be learned 
by a similar method. No pupil should be per- 
mitted to do anything with Least Common Multi- 
ples till he thoroughly understands the nature of 
primes and powers. 

68. 

PROPERTIES OF NUMBERS. 

I is the nought power of every number. 
1 is any power of itself. 

1 is any root of itself. 

1, used as a multiplier, does not increase the 
multiplicand. 

1, used as a divisor, does not diminish the divi- 
dend. 

2 is a factor of any integral number whose 
unit figure is divisible by 2, without a fractional 
quotient. 

Demonstration. Every integral number ex- 
pressed by more than one figure is made up of 
tens and units. The tens are divisible by 2 ; if 
the unit figure is also divisible by two without a 
fractional quotient, then the whole number ii^ 
divisible by 2. 

3 will divide any number without a frnctional 
quotient, the sum of whose figures it will divide 
in the same manner. 



THEORETICAL ARFTIIMETIC. 319 

Explanation, The figures of any number are 
the figures used in writing the number. 

Remark. This property of three depends on 
its being a factor of 9. 

Remark. The properties of the other numbers 
are discussed in most Arithmetics, and my limits 
forbid my pursuing them further. 

The properties of nine and eleven, however, are 
discussed in section 58, page 310. 

Factoring. The process of separating numbers 
into their prime factors. 

Remark. Long and numerous drills must be 
i^iven in factoring before commencing the study of 
the Greatest Common Divisor, and Least Common 
Multiple. The teacher will commence such drills 
by giving small numbers, and requiring the class 
to separate them by the mental process, and to 
give what pon'cr of « ach prime factor is contained 



in each i»iveDi nunibi-. 



69. 



Demonstration of Scholium. Since every di- 
visor smaller than the square root of a number, 
iiust give a quotient larger than the square root, 
and every divisor larger than the square root must 
give a quotient smaller; if every prime number 
smaller than the square root proves not to be a 
factor, no prime rum})er larger can be, for the 
reason, as before stated, that it must give as a 
quotient one of the primes less than the root, 
which is impossible; as they have already been 
tried, and found not to be factors. 



320 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 

70. 

Demomtrafinn of Rule by division for finding 
the Greatest Common Divisor, 

The G. C. D. of two numbers must be the same 
as that of the smaller number and the remainder 
after the smaller number has been taken out of 
the larger number as many times as possible. 

Illustration. Take the two lines A B 

C- I \- D, apply the shorter to the longer; 

it is evident that after the shorter shall have been 
applied to the longer as many times as possible, 
that the greatest common divisor or measure of 
the two lines A B, and D, must also divide or 
measure the difference E D, after it has exactly 
measured the line C E, which is but the line A B, 
repeated on the line C D. 

Since then the G. C. D. of the remainder after 
division of the larger number by the smaller, is 
the same as that of the two given numbers, if this 
remainder is not itself the G. C. D., it may be 
taken out of the smaller as many times as possible, 
and then the G. C. D. of what rem.ains after this 
Becond division will be the G. C. D. of the less of 
the given numbers and the remainder, and if so, 
then of the two given numbers. This process of 
dividing the last divisor by the last remainder 
must evidently be continued till there is no re- 
mainder, then the last remainder, which is also 
the last divisor, is the G. 0. D. of the two given 
numbers. 



\ 



r 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 321 



RULES FOR OBTAINING L. C. M. BV TRIMES. 

1st. Multiply fogether the highest powers of 
each of the prime factors contained in any of the 
given quantities. 

Dimonstraiion. The L. C. M. is the product of 
the highest powers of each of the prime Victors, 
found in any of the given quantities; for it must 
contain as many of each kind of prime factor as 
any number contains, or it would be impossible to 
divide by that number. No more factors of any 
one kind can be taken out the L. C. M. than it 
contains; but if any given number should contain 
more of such factors than the L. C. IM., in attempt- 
ing to divide the L. C. M. by such a number it 
would be attempting to take out more of one kind 
of prime factor than the L. C. M. contains, which 
would be impossible. Nor should the L. C. M. 
contain more of any one kind of prime factor than 
the largest number of such prime factor contained 
in any one of the given quantities, as such would 
obviously be superfluous. 

2d. Take the largest of the given numbers, mul- 
tiply it by such factors contained in the other 
numbers as are not provided for in the largest 
number, or by factors already taken fiom other 
numbers. 

Example. 12, 18, 20, 24, 50. 

By the first rule, 8 is the highest pcw<'.r of 2 
contained in any of the given numbers, mne is 
the highest power of three, 25 the highest power 
of 5 and there are no other prime factors in the 



- J 



\V.V2 THEORETICAL AIIITHMETIC. 

numbers, save 1, which does not affect the L.C. M 
Hence 8x9x25=1800, =L. C. M., for it con- 
tains all the 2'3 in all the numbers, since it con- 
tains as many as there are in 24, which contains 
more than any other. So also 1800 contains all 
the 3's since it contains as many as 18, which has 
more than any other. So also of the 5's in 50. 
By the second rule I take 50, which contains one 

2 and two 5's, but 24 contains three 2's as factors, 
hence two of them are not provided for in 50, but 
must be by multiplying 50 by 4. Again, the 8 in 
24 is not yet provided for; this must also be mul- 
tiplied into the former product of 50 and 4. All 
the factors of 20 are provided for, but 18 has two 
3's, and as only one 3 has as yet been put into 
the L. C M,, another must be multiplied into it. 
Hence we now have for the L. C. M., 50x4x3x 

3 = 1800. 

2nd Example. 20, 30, 40, 50, GO. 

By the first rule we have 8x3x25=:000=:L 
C. M. 

By the second rule we have 60x5 x2 = G00 = L 
C. M. 

3d Example. 24, 34, 44, 54. 

By the first rule we have 8x27 x 11 xl7 = L. C. 
M. 

By the second rule we have 54x2x11x17x2 
= L. C. M. 

4th Example. 23, 33, 43, 53. 

By the first ru'e we have 3x11x23x43x53= 
L. C. M. 



( I 



Tlir.ORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 323 

liy tLe second rule we have 53x43x3x11 x23 
= L. C. 31. 

72. 

Drmonstratwn of the rule for obtainltiLr the L 

j C. M. by division. 

Take the numbers 6, 8, 9, 12, 15, IS, 20, 24,25; 
divide these by 2, and we shall obtain the quotients 
and undivided numbers, 3, 4, 9, 0, 15, 9, 10, 12, 
25. Now this divisor 2 will answer for all the 
first powers of 2 contained in any of the given 
numbers; consequently those first powers of 2 are 
all rejected, and this divisor 2 is retained for them 
in the L. C. M. 

Dividing again by 2 we shall obtain the quo- 
tients and undivided numbers, 3, 2, 9, 3, 15, 9, 5, 
6, 25. This second divisor 2 will answer for all 
the second factors of 2 in i.ny of the given num- 

I bers. It is therefore retained, a« a factor of the 
L. C. M. Dividing again by 2 we obtain 3, 1, 9, 
3, 15, 9, 5, 3, 25. This thiri! divisor 2 answers 
for all the third factors of 2 contained in any given 
aumbers. Hence it is obvious that dividinir bv 
the several prime factors as long as two or more of 
the given numbers can be divided without a frac- 
tional quotient, is merely for the purpose of re- 
jecting superfluous factors, and retaining tlic 
necessary factors, for the L. C. M. 

Rcmarh. How much easier and shorter is the 
process of selecting the necessary factors according 
to Kules 1st or 2nd than to reject the unnccesFaiy 
factors, according to the Ru]e, by division^ X':.- 
oording to Rule 1st the necessarv factors are Sx9 



324: THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 

X 25=1800. According to Rule 2d they are 
25x8x9=--1800. The L. C. M. is thus obtained 
at a glance, with scarcely any effort. 

Remark. The skillful teacher will not permit 
his pupils to learn the Rule by division at all ; or, 
if they have already learned it, he will drill them 
on the other rules tilJ they will be glad to let it 
alone. 

73. 

ESSENTIALS. 

Terms of a Fraction. The numbers used to 
express it. 

Numerator. That term of a fraction which is 
written above the line, and expresses the number 
of parts taken, by the fraction. 

Denominator. That term of a fraction which 
is written under the line, and shows the number 
of parts into which the unit of which the fraction 
expresses a part, is taken. It also names the 
parts taken. 

74. 

propositions. 

1. Multiplying the numerator multiplies the 
fraction. 

2. Multiplying the denominator divides the 
fraction. 

3. Multiplying both terms by the same num- 
ber, does not alter the value of the fraction, 

4. Dividing the numerator divides the fraction. 

5. Dividing the denominator multiplies the 
fraction. 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. ?)25 

t>. Dividing both terms by tlic sajne nuiubcr 
docs not alter the value of the fraction. 

DEMONSTRATIONS. 

Prop. 1. Because it increases the number of 
parts while their size remains the same. 

Prop. 2. Because it diminishes the size of the 
parts while their number remains the same ; and 
it diminishes the parts, because the unit is thus 
divided into a greater number of parts, and of 
course each part becomes as many times less, as 
the divisor is times greater. 

Prop. 3. Because it increases the number of 
parts, as many times as it diminishes their size. 

Prop. 4. Because it diminishes the number of 
parts while their size remains the same. 

Prop. 5. Because it increases the size of the 
parts while the number remains the same ; and it 
increases the size of the parts because the unit is 
thus divided into a less number of parts ; each 
part being as many times greater as the divisor 
is times less. 

Prop. 6. Because it diminishes the number of 
the parts as many times as it increases their size. 

75. 

Reduction. Change of form without changing 
the value. 

Remark. From want of room I sh-all only dis- 
cuss a few of the oj)erations of fractions ; and | ! 
those, to show the application of the propositione 
in their demonstrations. 



31:G theoretical arithmetic. 

REDUCTION OF PRACXTC>tS TO LOWER TERMS 

Demonstration ^ Prop. 6. 

REDUCTION OF FRACTIONS TO HIGHER TERii«. 

Demonstration^ Prop. 3. 

REDUCTION OF COMPOUND FRACTIONS TO SIMPLE. 

Demonstration. Take J of |. 

Since multiplication is taking one number as 
many times as there are units or parts of a unit 
in another, taking f of | is a case of multiplica- 
tion; hence may be expressed thus : fx|. Then 
3 times | (Prop. 1,) is y, but since the multiplier 
is J of 3, this product is four times too large, and 
♦nust be divided by 4. But (Prop. 2.) yH-i=^j. 
By observing che two operations it is seen that the 
numerators have been multiplied together for a 
new numerator, and the denominators for a new 
denominator. Hence the ordinary rule is demon- 
strated. 

76 

Remark 1. Beduction of Complex Fractions 
to Simple is demonstrated in a similar manner, 
after having first shown that it is a case of division. 

Remark 2d. In examining classes this may be 
considered a test question, " Why does dividing 
the denominator multiply the fraction?" Such an 
answer as this is often given, " Because it shows 
that the fraction is divided into a less number of 
parts;" or this, " Because it increases the parts :' 
or this, " Because the number of the parts is less, 
therefore they must be greater." All these an- 
swers are worthless, the latter, which is more fre- 

. J 



THEORETICAL ARITIIMETJC. 327 

quently given, is absurd. This answer may be 
given, Because by dividing the denominator we 
divide the unit of which the fraction expresses a 
part, into a less number of parts: consequently, 
each one of the parts is of greater value. 

Rcnuirk. The analytical method of demonstrat- 
ing the operations of fractions should not be neg- 
lected. I will give one example of this method 
in division. Divide J by |. 

1^5== ^8-^5 = . 1^8^ = 1^. By noticing the last 
steps of this process it is seen that they correspond 
to the ordinary rule for the division of one fraction 
by another; viz: Invert the divisor and proceed 
as in multiplication. 

77. 

Remark 3(7. The division of a mixed number 
by a mixed number without reducing them to im- 
proper fractions gives an excellent drill, and 
should not be omitted. Such an example as this 
for instance, 19,Q399-1:|(, involves a difficulty that 
few scholars will surmount without help; fur, in 
performing the division it is found that the divisor 
is not contained twice in 39, and if it is assumed 
that it is contained once the second partial quo- 
tient is 10. The difficulty may be overcome in 
two ways ; first assume that the divisor is contained 
twice in 39 -|- /o, which assumption holds, as the 
second nine is ,"„ of a unit standing in the placo 
of the first nine. Secondly, assume that it is con- 
tained once in 39, thus making the first quotient 



-> 



B28 iLii:uilLTJCAL ARITHMETIC 

figure 1, then the second partial quotient will be 
10; the first figure of which being added to the 
former figure makes the first figure of the quotient 
2. as before. The second quotient figure will be 0. 

It is not claimed that this method of dividing 
one mixed number by another, is of any practical 
value in business operations ; only, that it gives a 
clearer view of the theory of the Arabic Notation ; 
and that it affords the means for an excellent drill 
in a class of apt scholars. 

Remark Ath. In reducing a fraction of a larger 
denomination to integers of lower denominations, 
a course is too often pursued which involves ab- 
surdity in the notation. For instance, if 4 of a 
mile is to be reduced to integers, the work is gen- 
erally performed thus, |m x8= Vfur.=3t fur. .\ 
40— 'r rods=171 rodsxl6-i=i64 ft.=22i ft.xl2 
=:i V inchesz=:4? inches. 

This is plainly a string of absurdities ; for 8 
times 2 of a mile is ^' of a mile, and not --^ of a 
furlong. Again, 3 1 fur. X 40 is not equal to '^^ 
rods, but is equal to 120-|-'7'' furlongs. 

A better method is this: ^m= V fui"-^^^ fur., 
;^ i'ur.^z'^' rodr=17^ rods, 4 rod=i6i n—2f ft., 
2i ft.^-ff inch=47 inches ; then ^ mile=3 fur- 
longs, 17 rods, 2 feet, 43 inches. 

Remark ^th. Nearly every operation in frac- 
tions admits of several different methods ; that of 
dividing one fraction by another admits of at 
least twenty different methods. It is an excellent 
plan to propose to a class to bring out all the dif- 
ferent meUiods which they can discover or invent 



rilKORETICAL AUITilMKTlC. 329 

for each operation ; also the demonstrations for 
the several methods. 

78. 

DECIMAL FRACTIONS. 

TemiH — Separatrix, Price, Cost, Quantity, Unity. 
T>_ 1- . • I Notation — RuIr. 

' I Numeration K'lle. 



Terminal -I ^^""'S'"' 

' I No. vi figures- -method of determining. 

''Origin, 

Notation, Rrlo. 

Nuiueratic n, liulo, 

■{ Value: how di'tei mined. 

I Pure, I I Single, 

{ Classes, j Mixed, ) : Double, etc. 

f Imperfect, 



-^ L Circulating, 



C Com. 
Dec. I 



a 



Rcpetends, i ( 1st, ") I? 

I Perfect, -( _^|[. j. | 

I 4th. J I 

, _, . r; I -- to Dec. ■-■" 

-ieduction ofl j ^^^^ ^^ ^,^^^ 

! J-ract.ons of V j j^^^^^^^ („ i^^^er t-vms, 

^ I ounple ^0?. J i^Decimnl to higher terms. 

2 I Increase — Addition. Multifjlication, I { Rules, 

"S ■{ Diminution — Subtraction, Division, \ Demonstration, 

o ' T, , ^. ... f Decimal of highei denomination to integers 

u I ^f'^"'';,'" i 1 1 "f i-^-^r, 

I S"^^ '"" ? >■ •( Integers of lower denomination to decimal 

t Compound | t u:„i,„. 

"- 'J mbers ^^ higher, 

J .. u u , ; [One quantity to decimal of another. 

79. 

DITINITIONJ, EXPLANATCJXS, AND REMARKS. 

Decimal Fraction. A Fraction whose denom- 
inator is not expressed ; bat is understood to be 
buch a power of ten as js indicated by the number 
of figures at the righ<^ of the separatrix. 

Ciiticism. in consulting Ray's Higher Arithmetic, I find this 
definition of a decimal fraction : 

*• A Decimal Frac'cira i.< one which derives its name from the 
liHtiii word dtcem, rueaninglen; antl is so called, because its 
denominator is .''.WTys 1 with cyphers t^nnexed ; being either 10 
or the product if jevcral lO's." 

'I'liis <i(tiidti'/ii i.s wortlilcsp beoaiipe it includes a lartrc c!a<»« of 
rom.iio'. fr.K't.ons. Read Prof. Davics, in his University Arith- 
meti'"'— " A df i^-imal fraction is f)ne in which tlie unit w divided 
according lo the scale of tens." 



330 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 

Remark. The separatrix is the most imponaat 
character used in decimals, and no paiis shodiJ 
be spared to impress this on the minds of pupils 

Rule for Notation. 1st. Write the separntrix 
2d. Determine the place of the given deDomiLia- 
tion. 3d. Assume this place, so determined, n? f-he 
place of units, and \Nrite the given qnantlty, ^ if 
whole numbers. 

Remark \st. The difficulty in most rules for 
writing decimals is that the pupil is compelled to 
write them twice ; once, to obtain the correct num- 
ber and arrangement of figures, and again, to 
place them in proper relation to other decimals 
with which he may wish to combine them. jBy 
this rule he will write them where he wants lUPin 
in the first instance. 

Remark 2d. In large classes of Teachers I have 
seldom found more than two or three individuals 
(frequently none) who were able to write decimals 
correctly. Take examples of these kinds, for in- 
stance : 

One hundred million ten-thousandths. 

Fifteen million fifteen thousand and fiftcei^ 
hundred ten-millionths. 

Forty-five million forty-five thousand and fortj^- 
five hundred thousandths. 

Forty-five million forty-five thousand and forty 
five hundred-thousandths. 

Remark 3c?. Such common fractions as ^o^oo and 
jTioof, having denominators of many more figure^: 
than the numerator are -he proper examples tr 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 33 I 

lest a class in reducing common fractions to deci- 
mals. It is not an uncommon thing for a cl"ss 
to obtain almost as many different results aL" it 
contains pupils, in consequence of the misplace- 
ment of the separatrix. A thorough teacher will 
pay particular attorition to this matter, 

80. 

Demonstration of the rule for multiplication of 
•decimals. 

Rule. Multiply as in entire numbers and point 
off as many figures from the right of the product 
as there are in both of the factors. 

Demonstration. Assume that both factors are 
'intire numbers, then since removing the separatrix 
towards the left divides either of the factors, as 
many times by ten, as there are figures thus placed 
at the right of the separatrix; and since the pro- 
duct must be as many times divided by ten as both 
the factors, it follows that the rule is correct. 

81. 

Demonstration of the rule for the division of 
decimals. 

Rule. Divide as in whole numbers, and poinl 
off as many figures, at the right of the quotient, 
for decimals, as the decimal figures in the dividend 
exceed those in the divisor. 

Demonstration. Assume first that both dividend 
and divisor arc whole numbers, then of course the 
quotient is also a whole number: but since divid- 
ing the dividend divide? the quotient, and dividini^ 
the divisor muUiplies the quotient, and since r*» 



.V62 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 



niovin^' the separatrix towards the left divide? 
either quantity as many times by ten as there are 
figures thus placed at the right of the separatrix, 
in each of the numbers, it follows then as many 
more times as the dividend has thus been divided 
than the divisor, so many times must the quotient, 
be divided by ten; in other words, so many figures 
must be cut otf from the right of 'the quotient as 
the dividend has been divided more times by ten 
than the divisor has been thus divided. 



Terms — 
Signs — 

Uo'atlons. ■ 



82. 

RATIO. 

Antecedent, Consequent, Couplet, Value of Kntio. 
. a 

'of subtraction — how much greater? — Difference, 
' of division— how many times greater? — Quotiorit. 
1 of involution. 



('lasses, 



C 



[ of evolution. 

as to arrangement, 

as to origin, 

as to combination, 

I 

"-as to value, 



oraparison '\ 
of English v 
Ratio, J 



English, 

French. 

Direct, 

Inverse. 

Simple, 

Compound. 

of equality, 

of greater inequality, 

of less inequality. 

I Antecedent=Dividend. 
with Division, V Consequent=Divisor, 

( yaluc=Quotient. 

( Antecedent=Xumerator. 
with Fractions, J. Consequent=Denominator. 

( Vnlue=Valuc. 

{Antecedent=I)ivis jr, 
Consequent=Dividend. 
Value=Qaotient. 
i Antecedent=Denorainatcr, 
with Fractions, -| Consequent=Numerator, 
( Value=Value. 

S(;holium, — Ratio can only exist between quantities of the sainfi 
kind. 

Rule for finding value of Rati). 



Comparison 

of French 

Ratio, 



}{ 



TI1K()KKT1'"AL AUlTiniKTlC, 333 

{Enu'lisli I J 1. Ant.— Con.'.xVahic of liatio. 

Kvtio, \ ( 2. C(}Uf. — Aiit.-i- Vidue oi l{aii.>. 

Frei.cli I \ 1. Ant.-C.)n^.-;-V:iliie of .Ratio. 

Kiiiio, ) } 2. Cons.— Ant. XValue of Ratio. 

'1 . • o • 4 ^' w, 

jieonactnc Series, ' ,- , 

' ( \ alue. 

Propositions, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. 

83. 
DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS, AND REMARKS. 

Ratio. A combination of two or more terms in 
pairs, for the purpose of comparison by division. 

Remark. The result of such division is often 
called ratio; more correctly, it is the value of the 
ratio. 

Terms. The numbers between which the com- 
oarison is instituted. 

Antecedejjt. The first or lefthand term of a 
pair comprised in a ratio. 

Consequent. The second or righthand term of 
the pair comprised in a ratio. 

Couplet. A pair of terms including an ante- 
cedent and consequent. 

Value of Katio. The quotient arising from 
dividing one term of a ratio by the other. 

Relations. Bearings. 

Relation as determined hy subtraction^ answers to 
the question, How much greater is one number 
than another? It is the same as the difference. 

Relation as determined hy division^ answers the 
question, How many times is one number greater 
than another? It is the same as the quotient. 

Relation as determined hy involution or evoluticm 
answers the question. What power or root is one 
number of another? It is the same as the expo- 



I 1 

1 " 



d34 TIIEOUETK'AL AlUTIlMETIC. 

nent or index of one number, when pla( ed equa 
to another, as its power or root. 

English Ratio. That in which (he antecedent 
is to be divided by the consequent. 

French Ratio. That in which the consequent 
is to be divided by the antecedent. 

Remark. It is not to be supposed that all Kng 
Hsh mathematicians adopt what is called the Enu'- 
lish Ratio, or that all French mathematicians use 
what is called the French Ratio. Davies seems 
first to have introduced the inverted or French 
ratio into American books. He did not follow 
the French author whose work he translated in 
(his particular. Most works on Natural Science 
retain the old or English form, and in their ratios 
suppose that the first term is to be divided by the 
second. 

Several of the more recent Arithmetics have 
adopted the English Ratio, as Stoddard's, Dodds. 
ate. 

84. 

Direct Ratio. That in which more requires 

more ; or less rec][uires less. 

Inverse Ratio. That in which more require:? 
less; or less requires more. 

Remark. Many arithmeticians reject this dis- 
tinction as useless. In my opinion, however, it 
afi'ords a fine means of drill, in the discussion of 
problems in compound proportion. 

SiiMPLE Ratio. That involving but one couplet 



THEORETICAL MUTIIMETIC. 335 

Compound Ratio. That involving two or more 
simple ratios, combined with the sign of multipli- 
cation. 

Ratio of Equality. Thai In which the terms 
are equal; or that in which the value is unity. 

Ratio of Greater Inequalitv. That in which 
the value is greater than unity. 

Ratio of Less Inequality. That in which the 
value is less than unity. 

Remark. It will be noticed that a French Ra- 
tio of greater inequality may be identical with an 
English Ratio of less inequality. 

Series. A succession of terms, each of which 
is derived from one or more preceding terms by 
bome known law. 

Geometric Series. One in which each term is 
derived from the preceding term by a constant 
multiplier or divisor. It is sometimes called Con- 
tinued Proportion. 

Remark. This constant multiplier or divisor is 
equivalent to the value of any single ratio, or 
couplet comprised in the series. 

Propositions. The same as those for fractions, 
substituting the terms antecedent and consequent 
for numerator and denomioitor. 
.16 



336 THEORETICAL ARITIIMETIO. 

85. 

TROPORTION. 

Terms, — Proportional, Mean Proportional, Last F roportional, 
Third Proportional, Fourth I'roportional, I.omologous, 
Analogous, Extremes, Means. 

M„ns, .,.,.,-,.., ^ ^ Reading. 

ras to origin, \ ]^^^^^^y 
J ° ' ( inverse. 

Classes, i I Simple, 

las to combination, < Compound, 

f Conjoined. 

r First term=First Antecedent=First Extreme. 

Names of ) j Second term=First Consequent=First Mean. 

Single Terms, i j Third term=Second Antecedent=Sec'd Mean. 

(Fourth terra=See'd Consequent— 2d Extreme. 

r First and Second=First Couplet, 

I Fir?t and Third=Antecedents, 

Names of J First and Fuurth=Extremes, 

Pairs of Terms, I Second and Third=Means, 

I Second and Fuurth=Consequents, 

[Third and Fourth=Secoad Couplet. 

{Fandamental, Product of Extremes=Product of Means. 
(I. Product of Extremes-^one mean=othet 
Derived, < mean. [treme. 

[2. Product of Means— ^one extreme=other ex- 

n 1 p it i. \ for Simple Proportion. 

Kiik'S for statement, J - ri ^ , v> 

' ( tor Compound Proportion. 

1. by Fundamental Law, 

Methods of Solution, ■{ 2. by Ratio, 



3. by Cancellation. 
86. 

DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS, AND REMARKS. 

Proportion. A combination of two equal ra 
tios, with the sign of equality. 

Proportional. Any on ? of the terms of a pro- 
portion. 

Mean Proportional. One of two equal means 
in a proportion. 

Third Proportional. The fourth term of a 
proportion in which the means are equal. 

Rtmark. Such a proportion is often written 
with only three terms; thus: ^4:8:16) = (4:8::8:16). 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 337 

IlojioLOGocs Tehms. ThojJG occupy in g the 
same place in two or more couplets. Two or more 
consefjuents are homologous terms ; also two or 
more antecedents. 

Analagous Terms. Such as are found in the 
same couplet. 

ExTRE3iE8. The first and last terms of a pro- 
portion. 

Means. The second and third terms of a pro- 
portion. 

Signs. Symbols indicating a relation, operation 
or sequence. 

Sign of Eatio. (:). It is an abridged sign of 
division, and is read as in this Example, 4:6::8:12. 

Reading. — As 4 is to G, so is 8 to 12. 

Sign of Equality, (::). It is an abridged form 
of the ordinary sign of equality, being the extrem- 
ities of the lines. It is read as in the example 
above, "so is." 

Sign of Sequence or Deduction, (.•.). It i? 
explained, section 47, page 299. 

Direct Proportion. That which involves di- 
rect ratios. 

Inverse Proportion. That which involves in- 
verse ratios. 

Simple Proportion. That which consists of 
simple ratios only. 

Compound Proportion. That which contains 
one or more compound ratios. 

Conjoined Proportion. That form of a com- 
pound proportion, in which each antecedent is 
e'jual in value to its consequent. ' 



338 niEORETICAL ARITHMETia 

Remark Conjoined proportion is used in re- 
ducing coins of the two countries through the 
Miedium of other countries. It is often called the 
Chain Ilule. 

Demonstration of fundamental law: 

1st. Take 6:8::12:1G. Expressing each ratio 
fractionally f = ~. Multiplying each fraction by 
6, we have 8=»^"|f^; for, multiplying equals by 
equals the products will be equal. Again, multi- 
plying the last two equal quantities by 12, we 
have 8x12 = 16x6, which gives the product of the 
means, 8 and 12, equals the product of the ex- 
tremes, 6 and 16. 

2d. Take 6:8::12:16. Since every consequent 
is equal to its antecedent multiplied by the value 
of their ratio: 8 = 6X3; ^^id 16 = 12x^. Hence 
we perceive that the extremes 6 and 16 contain 
the same factors as the means 8 and 12. 6.12 
and 4 being the factors of the extremes; 6, f, and 
12, being the factors of the means. Since the 
products of equal factors are equals, and the 
means and extremes contain equal factors, the 
products of the extremes and means must be equal. 

Methods of Solution. By Ratio. Multiply 
the first term of the second couplet by the value 
of the ratio, obtained from the first couplet. By 
cancellation. Consider all antecedents, excepting 
the last, as denominators, all consequents and the 
last antecedent as numerators of a compound frac- 
tion. Then cancel as in the reduction of a com- 
pound fraction. 



I \ 



THEORETICAL ARITIIWETIC. 339 

87. 
I'KllCENTAGE. 

IV ms. — IVrcont, IJ.ite percent. 

Notiiiion, — Rule, Cunsitier huiulredrhs as units, and write as in 
whole numbers. 

''^'o" (%)• '^'^'^ *'S" ^'^^ ^^^^^ recently intr,duced ; and is read 
percent, 
rist, To find any given percent of a number, Rule. 
Cases, I 2d, To find what percent one \o. is of another, Rule. 
] 3d, To find a No. when any percent of it is known, iiule. 
[•1th, To find a No. when any percent greater or less ij 
given. Rule. 

88. 

GAIN AND LOSS. 

h'emarl-. 100 percent represents the So. on which any gain or 
loss accrues. 

rn 

Cases, < ^ >=the same general cases in percentage. 

89. 

COMMISSION. 

liemark. — 100 percent represents the No. on which commissioa 
is charged. 

Terms \ ■'^S®"*' Commission->rerehant, Factor, Correspondent. 
"' \ Trincipal, Rate of Commission. 

fM 

CasoG, I „ >=the same general cases in percentage. 

BROKERAGE. 

Consigner, Consignee, Bill of Exchange, Check, Draft, 

Bond, 
Rate of Brokerage, Proceeds or cost. 

2 ^=the same general cases in percentage. 

4j 

90. 

STOCKS. 

'Joint Stock Company, Stock, Share, Certificate, 
Stockholders, Dividend, Rate of Dividend. 
Par Value, Face, Nominal Value, Real Value, 
Terms ■> '^'-irket Value, Rise and Fall. 

^'1 At par, Above par. Below par. At a premium, At a 
di'Jcount, Discount. 
Stock Broker, Stock .lobbor, Investment, Commission, 
y Rate of Commission, 

CaseSj—Cases in Percentage. 




B40 THEORETICAL ARITiniETlC. 

91. 

INSURANCE. 

[ „ ( Policy, Pi-cmium, Underwriter, Out-Door, 

\ lerms, j ^^^^ ^^ Icsiuiince, Take a Risk, Cover. 

r Fire, 
i Marine, 
Classes, { Life, 

I Hei.lth, 
( Stock, etc. 

Case-!,=Cuses in Percentage. 



TAXES. 

^. , , Poll, 
Direct, ] r> ^„ 

' / Property, 

Classe?, -l , m ^ , / * 1 1 1 / Tare, 

Draft, 
Leakage, 
Breakage 

p ( for specific duties, Rule, 

yases, I £^^ ,^j^ valorem duties — Cases=Cases in percentago. 



iCustomsj I Ad valorem, I i 
or y < Allowance.*, >■ < 
Duties, ) ( Specific, J ( 



92. 

INTEREST. 

f Principul=P. Compound Interest=G. I. 

Interest^=A. Compound Amountr=C. A. 

Quantities | Rate=R. Loo:arithm=Log. 

and ^ ( Years=T. 

Symbols, I Time in < Months=ra. 

I ( Days=d. 

t Amount---A.=P+I. 

r Simple, 

^, Compound, 

Classes, ^^^J,^^,^ 

[ Mixed. 

(8, Ga., Ala., Mi., Fl. 
7, N. Y., S. Ca., Mi., Wis., lo. 
liCgal Rates, < 5, La. 

j 10, Texas. 

I 6, In all other States and in U. S. Courta. 
Remark. 100 percent represents the principal. 
( General. PxTxR=I. 
Rules, -'Special, j ^(^^,+ 3/,,)xf=I. 

( for 6 percent, ' ) p va. t 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 



an 



i.\ O veil, ^ T. Rpquired, I. l'XlvxT=I. 

2 Given, ^ I. Required, R. Rule — -— — —=\l. 
I T. ' I XTx,<ll 









3 Given, ■) I. Required, T. Rule i — — -=T. 

j R ' ^ Xli 

(I (I 

4 Given, -j R. Required, P. Rule j ^7TTp---=H. 

( a! 

5 Given, ■{ R. Required, P. Rule J -— - 

<A. 
, -( R. Required, 
(T. 



+RXT P- 



6 Given 



I. Rule A- 



$1,+RXT. 



P. 

I Given, ■{ R. Required C A. Rule Px(l+R)T=C A. 
T. 
P. 



2 Given, ^ R. Required C I. Rule PX( 1+R)T-P.=C L 
(T. 
I C A. (J ^ 

3 Given, ■/ R. Required P. Rule— ' .y =P. 

4 Given, ^ R. Required P. Rule , „ -y— ;^P. 



.n, J R. 



(i+RjT_L 
'5-l=R. 



( C A. -. ^— - 

5 Given, { P. Required R. Rule V^—] 

[ T. ** 

6 Given, i P.liequirod T. Rale W- C A- _I^ P.^ 

*a. Log.(l-|-B.) 



^42 



THLORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 



93 



BANKING. 



B.ujks, < 



Officers 



of Ijisae, 
i^t Discount, 
ot Deposit. 

i Directors, 
President, 
Cashier, 
Tellers. 



i Negotiable, 
Non negotiable, 
Bank, 
of hand. 



Essentials, 



Persons, 



Terms 



Signature, 
Date, 

Promise to pay. 
Value received. 

Maker, 

Payee, 
Holder, 
Endorser. 



Face, Protest, Payable on Demand, Payable on 
Time, Payable on Sight, Proceeds, Avails, Coat, 
Time to Uun, Day of Maturity, Nominally Due, 
Legally Due. 



Partial 
Payments, 



Itemaik. — Interest must not draw interest. 

, United States, 
Rules, \ Connecticut, 



' Vermont. 

f Face of Note, A. 

I Avail or Cost, C. 

Hate. R. 



( Quantities, { 



Til 



iin Years — 1 
in Months— 
in Days — d. 



Discount, { Classes. 



Cases ofl 
• Bank [• 
Discount) 



(.Bank Discount— D. 
^ True Discount,— I=PxRXT. 
\ Bank Discount,— D=Ax'ixT. 

f I. To find discount ( f a note 

AxIixT=D. 

2. To find proceeds of a note. 
A-AXRxT=C. 

3. To find face of a note for g ven 

C 
prooeeds, A 

1-RxT- • 



rz:= 



! 

THEORKTJCAL AUITIJ33 ETKJ. ^ 13 



>";id.-s<.'s 



! Foreign, 
Domestic, 
CireuL.r. 



94. 
EXCHANGE. 



, ,, \ Si<;ht=Chocks, % 

' t iuue. 

Endorsements, ji^^iij^.^k. 
Acceptance. 

,, ^ J in favor, 

Kate, ■{ . . 
' } against. 

Standrrd— Amount of pure gold or silvar in coin. 

Reduction of I i direct, 

Currencies, ) I circularrschain rule. 

I Frcn.-h. ^ji^^^ 

Ft-reign Coins, j German, ^ piatinum, 

Spanish, ^^^^ 

|_ Russian. J ^ 

95. 

INVOLUTION. 

) Degrees, 
„ ^ . I positive, 

Kxponcnt, \ \^^,^^^^-^^.^^ 

{Adding exponents multiplies the qunntities. 
Subtracting exponents divides the quantities. 
Multiplying' an exponent involves the ouanlily. 
Dividing an exponent evolves the quantity. 
(of 1. I'.very power of 1 is 1. 
of numbers less than 1. Powers, higher thrj; 
the first, are less than tho number, 
of 0th power of numbers. Always=l. 
,. , ( Dcmonstrati< b, 
''"'^'' I Applications 

96. 



Root, 



EVOLUTION. 

Degrees, 

>^'g". 

lod.-7, 

[ Fractional Exponent. 
l'ro]':isiiioii.*. Tho same as in Involution. 

iof I. Every root of 1 is 1. 
f)f number less than 1. Every root higher th.in 
the first is greater than the number, 
of Olh root of numbers. Alway<=l. 

) Geometrical, 
Arithmetical, 
Algebraic, 
lor any root, ) (Aj plicationa. 
15* 



344 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIO. 



97. 

ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION 



Arithmetical Series, \ »v ,.°' 

' ( Descending. 



Quantities 



f First terra=:a. 



mtities \ \ Last tenii=l. 

and > ■{ Common diffcrence=d. 

rmbols, ) I Number of terms=n. 



I. Sum of serie3=8. 



,1 Given, -^n. Required I. Rule, a-f d(n — l)ssL 
(d. 
n. 

2 Given, ^1. Required a. Rule, I — d(n — l)=»ai 

(a. 

Oases, ■{ 3 Given, -^n. Required d. Rule, \~^' 



1— a 



4 Given, -<1. Required n. Rule, — 5 — |-l=n. 
(d. ^ 

^5 Given, h. Required s. Rule, -^ — =St 
(n. 2 

08. 
GEOMETRICAL PROGRESSION. 



Geometrical Series, | n^„„„^;5^ 
' ( Descending, 





Quantities 

and 

Symbols. 


'First term— a. 
Last term=l. 
■j Common Ratio=r. 
, Number of term3=n. 
t Sum of serie3=s. 








rl 


Given, Jr. Required I. 
in. 


Rule, ftXrn-lcaU 






2 


Given, -^r. Required a. 
fn. 


Rule, =a. 




Cases, ' 


3 


Given, -(a. Required r. 
fn. 


Rule, '^"V-^r, 






4 


I. 
Given, -la.. Required s. 

(r. 


Rule, ^^"^=3. 
r— 1 






1 la. 
5 Given, -^r. Required s. 


ayrn— I 












r 



I*A.PIT VI. 

READING AND SPEAKING WITII 
GESTICULATION. 



"~ — ^1 



-^ l^i -W I.. 




J ; 



INTRODUCTION. 



It is universally conceded, that no branch is so 
much negl jcted in our common schools as reading, 
llesulting from this abuse there is more, vastly 
more, disagreeable reading and speaking:, even 
among professional men, whose habits, in this par- 
ticular, are for the most part fixed in their primary 
instruction, than illogical thinking or false reason- 
ing. Yet there is less being done by leading 
Educators, or by those guardians of our public 
schools, the School P]xaminers, either in the way 
of scrutiny or remonstrance, in this branch, than 
in any other of the common branches. 

It becomes the true Teacher, and especially 
such an one as may have the training of Teachers, 
to give his best efforts to this subject. I shall en- 
deavor to do so. Amid the avalanches of books for 
reading and declamation that overwhelm us, not 
one that I have examined presents a just and 
appropriate arrangement of the subject, and much 
less a systematic plan of teaching it, e. i., so simple 
as to be available in our common school.^, and so 
thorough as to meet the demands of the subject. 



348 INTRODUCTION. 

If I succeed no better than mj numerous prede- 
cessors, it will not be for want of attention to the 
mbject, or of experience in teaching it, or of a 
determination to accomplish what is required. 

The Objects to be aimed at in the study of 
Elocution, and of course in teaching it, are 

1st. The Acquisition of General Knowledge. 

It may be said, that good vocal delivery is not 
necessary in this point of view. I answer, that he 
who can make others appreciate the sense and 
scope of an author, will surely be most likely, him- 
self, to comprehend the author, and that in the 
effort to impress others with ideas read or declaim 
ed, he himself receives the deepest impression. 

2d. The Acquisition of a Love for Reading. 

It is a complaint on the part of many parents 
that their children have no love for their books. 
Though the difficulty lies chiefly with the parents 
themselves, in not supplying their children with 
books and papers suitable for their age, and ad- 
vancement; yet the proper training of the voice, 
and with it the mind — for the former is impossible 
without the latter — is an efficient means for incit- 
ing children and youth to read for the pleasure it 
affords them. Show me a "good reader" and I 
will show you a person that has become so, not so 
much by class drill, or by self-training in vocal 
delivery, as by silent and intelligent reading in- 
cited by it. 

3d. The Improvement of the Memory, Judg- 
ment, AND Taste. 

Though these faculties of the mind are more 



INTROI^UCTIOX. 34<J 

particularly ciililvated by proper training in vocal 
delivery, every other faculty is reached and ii»> 
proved. 

4th. Improvement of the Social Faculties. 

Instead of that vacuity, frivolity, and tendency 
to gossip and flirtation, which too generally pre- 
vail in social gatherings, we might, as the result 
of proper vocal culture, have such occasions en- 
livened and enriched, or, at least, varied with read- 
ings, recitations, personations, or the telling of 
anecdotes, with such spontaneous criticism, re- 
marks, additional readings, recitations, speeches, 
stories, and fun as they would provoke, all of which 
cultivated vocal delivery is calculated to improve 
and embellish. 

4th. Improvement of the Health. 

The person who learns to make correct use of 
the organs of speech, and with them of the entire 
system in finished vocal delivery, can hardly be 
affected with any serious disease of the chest or 
spine. At any rate, the exercise is better than all 
the poisons, under the various names of nostrums, 
cordials, tonics, expectorants, panaceas, and cod 
liver oils, that have ever been consumed. White- 
field could " drive off a fever by a good pulpit 
sweat." The bronchitis can never lay aside a per- 
son who cultivates a good vocal delivery. Such a 
person may, with reasonably correct habits other- 
wise, defy the consumption, and all its concomi- 
tant evils. 

5th. A Graceful Carriage and Address. 

Many parents send their children to dancing 



350 INTRODUCTION. 

schools, at a 2;reat hazard of their morals, to im- 
prove their manners. A proper training m elocu- 
tion will accomplish the same object more directly, 
without any such risk. 

6th. A PREPARATION FOR PUBLIC LIFE. 

How many men of good abilities and superior 
culture otherwise, are comparatively inefficient and 
unsuccessful from improper training and use of 
their organs of speech. Audiences wearied, in- 
struction unimparted, justice unattained, real vir- 
tue and true benevolence unsustained, are some of 
the lamentably notorious effects of the pernicious 
and repulsive habits of a large class of public men 
in their elocution. 

7th. The Prevention and Correction of the 

FOLLOWING LIST OF IMPROPRIETIES. 

IMPROPRIETIES IN PERSON AND COUNTENANCE. 

1. Improper Walk to the Rostrum ; too much 
on the heel, too noisy, too stooping, too slow, too 
rapid. Improper attitude on floor or rostrum ; too 
nearly equal on both feet, too long on one foot, 
too frequently changing the position, too much 
bent over, shoulders too much drawn forward, 
chest too much contracted, too much wriggling and 
twisting, rocking, or weaving the body. 

2. Improper Bow ; too much in the neck, too 
quick and snappish, too low, too familiar or disre- 
spectful, too much to one side, too stiff and formal. 

4. Improper Manner of Holding the Book or 
Manuscript ; too much with both hands, too much 
before the face, too near the breast or abdomen, 



J 



INTRODUCTION. 351 

too Stiffly, SO as not to admit of the ready turning? 
of leaves or of gesticulation. 

5. Improper Position of the Head; too much 
forward, too much backward, too much on one 
side, too much throwing the hair back, too much 
nodding, too much shaking, too immovable. 

6. Improper Use of the Eyes ; too much out 
of the window, too much at the pillars or walls, 
too much towards the floor, too much at one indi- 
vidual in the audience, too much at one part of 
the audience, too much closed, too wide open, with 
too little interest or confidence in the audience. 

7. Improper Action of the Mouth ; too much 
closed, lips too near together, teeth too nearly shut, 
too much spitting. 

8. Improper Expression of Countenance; too 
"shame-faced," too stupid, too unvarying, too 
much lacking any expression, too little in accord- 
ance with the sentiment uttered. 

9. Improper Use of Hands and Fingers; too 
stifif and straight, too much clinched, behind the 
back, in the pockets, in the arm-hole of the vest, 
too much on the hip, fingers playing with each 
other or with the dress, or with buttons, watch 
chain, or pencil or string, stroking the face or 
beard, running the fingers through the hair. 

10. Improper Gesticulation; too unfrequent, 
too frequent, too feeble, too violent, too periodical, 
too much with one hand, too much with both 
hands, too low, too much bending the arm at the 
elbow, gesticulating when looking on the book or 
manuscript, no gesticulation, unsuitod to the senti- 



> 



352 INTRODUCTION. 

ment uttered, too soon or too iate for the sentiment^ 
too sliiF, too angular, too much in straight line^ 
out from the body, pointing to the ears, eyes, or 
other features, not being accompanied with the 
eyes. 

11. Improper Recognition of Individuals in 
the Audience ; with smiles not called for by thf 
sentiment of the piece. 

12. Improper Manner of leaving the Rostrum, 
too hasty, too noisy, too impudent, too sneaking. 

IMPROPRIETIES OF BREATH AND VOICE. 

1. Improper Times of taking Breath; in the 
midst of a syllable, in the midst of a word, where 
no pause is required, after a sentence rather than 
before. 

2. Improper Method of taking Breath; too lit- 
tle at a time, with too much noise. 

3. Improper Use of Breath in producing Sound; 
too wasteful through harsh or impure tones. 

4. Improper Articulation ; too hurried, too 
careless, too indistinct, too particular on unimpor- 
tant words and unaccented syllables. 

5. Improper Pronunciation; wrong sound of 
vowels, wrong sound of consonants, accent placed 
on wrong syllables. 

6. Improper Pitch; too high, too low, too mo- 
notonous. 

7. Improper Force ; too feeble, too faltering, 
too feeble on unimportant words, too loud, too un- 
varying, too loud on unimportant words, diminu 



\ 
■ — . I 



INTRODUCTION. 353 

tion of force from the beuinnins: to the end of 
every sentence. 

8. Improper Kate; too rapid, or too slow to 
suit the sentence or the piece. 

9. ImprojDcr Inflection on any word, phrase or 
sentence. 

10. Improper Emphasis ; on the wrong word 
or words, too little, too much, of the wrong kind, 
emphatic pause too short, emphatic pause too long, 
no emphatic pause. 

11. Improper Quality of Voice; too husky and 
impure in tone, too nasal, too guttural, too tremu- 
lous, too boisterous, too shrill, too much mumbling, 
too apathetic, too affected, too snifl3ing. 

12. Improper Ending of Sentences ; too ab- 
rupt, too drawling, with too much of a tone, too 
much alike, 

13. Improper Transition ; from one key to an- 
other, from one degree of rapidity to another, from 
one sentiment to another, from one paragraph to 
another, from one personation to another. 

14. Improper Style of Delivery ; untitted to 
the sentiment, too grave, too comic, too stern, too 
trifling, too sad, too joyful, too earnest, too unfeel- 
ing, too sarcastic, too sneering, too contemptuous, 
too ridiculous, too much of a sing-song, too mo- 
notonous. 

15. Improper Appearance ; too bold, too timid, 
too pompous, too effeminate, too theatrical, too 
ministerial, too tame, too vehement, too conceited, 
with too much affectation, too simpering, too silly, 
too much embarrassed, too much frightened at 



354 INTRODFCnON. 

jour friends, too much affected with the blind 
staggers. 

16. Improper Personation ; too slight portrayal 
of character, characi^r overdone, character not cor- 
rectly personated. 

17. Improper conception of the subject matto? 



i i 
- I 



£LOCU riON, 



1. 

Departments. 



Elocution, i Man"p'nent, of tho 
' 1 V ocal Culture. 



Person. 
Gesticulation. 



2. 

DEFINITION AND EXPLANATION. 

Elocution. The art of expressing thought and 
feeling, by means of articulate and gesticulate 
language. 

Explanation. By referring to the General Out- 
line of Grammar, page 39, it will be seen, that 
Natural Language is divided into Articulate and 
Gesticulate; and that Artificial Language is divid- 
ed into Articulate and Written; P]locution com- 
prises both divisions of Natural Language ; but the 
first only, of Artifi'^'nl Lanfruage. 

(355) 



350 ELOCUTION. 

3. 

DEPARTMENTS OF ELOCUTION. 

T) J- \ S'lent, 

. Readmg, ^^^j^'j^ 

« Speaking, Premeditated, 

f Oratory, ] c- . ' 

"" ( Lxtempore. 

4. 

DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS AND REMARKS. 

Reading. The perusal or utterance of thought 
and feeling, as .seen expressed in Written Lan 
guage. 

Silent Reading. The perusal of Written Lan- 
guage without utterance. 

Audible Reading. The utterance of thought 
and feeling, as immediately obtained from Written 
Language. 

Remark Isf. No work on Elocution with which 
I am conversant attempts a definition of Reading. 

Remark 2d. Silent Reading does not strictly 
come under the definition of Elocution, yet from 
its inseparable connection with the subject, it 
seems necessary to introduce it. 

Speaking. The utterance of thought and feel- 
ing, with the eyes free from Written Language. 

Declamation. The speaking of another's com- 
position. 

Oratory. The speaking of one's own composi- 
tion in an impressive manner. 

Premeditated Oratory. That in which the 
composition has been previously studied. 

Extempore Oratory. That in which the 'com- 
position is accomplished simultaneously with the 
delivery. 



ELOCUTION. 



357 



MANAGEMENT OF THE PERSON. 

f Manner of taking Position, 

I Manner of Bowing, 

r> •»• r i.u u J \ Standinjr. 
Position of the body, ^ ,,. ° 
•" / knitting. 

I Po.-ition of Upper Extremities, 

I Position of LoAver Extremities, 

Maniigeincnt | Changea in Position, 

of the ■{ Carriage of the Head, !► 



Person. 



Lips 
Teeth. 



Dircctii.nii, 
l']rrnry, 
Methods nf 
Drill. 



Management of Mouth, 

" Lungs, 

" Eyes, 

Expression of Countenance, 
General Appearance, 
Manner of leaving the Stage. 

6. 

DIRECTIONS AND EXPLANATIONS. 

Manner of taking Position. The pupil risey 

when his name is called, and passes with a firm 

and elastic tread, to one side of the stage, and 

ascending in a quiet and graceful manner, takes 

his position where he can best be seen by all the 

audience; and with just a moment's respectful view 

of the audience he bows, to the ladies first, if the 

sexes are separated, then to the gentlemen ; or if 

the sexes are intermingled he bows to the whole 

audience. 

7. 

Manner of Bowing. In bowing, the whole 
frame should bend slightly, the neck somewhat 
more than other parts. The right hand may wave 
gracefully to the audience, especially to the ladies, 
or both hands may be thrown forward gracefully, 
greeting the whole a'.dience. 

Remark 1, No explanation or plate can gi ,'e a 
correct idea of this greeting, any more than of gos- 



858 ELOCUTION. 

ticulatlon. It can only be learned from a l'vin<! 
example. 

Remark 2. It is not desirable that all tlie mem- 
bers of a class should give the same form of bow 
or of greeting, in commencing reading or speaking, 
but that a class should be trained in a variety oi 
forms. 

8. 

Position of the Body. Whether standing or 
sitting, the body should be erect, the shoulders 
thrown back, and the chest made protuberant. 

9. 

Position of the Upper Extremities. The 
hands should hang as the force of gravity, only, 
will place them. No force should be applied to 
make them hang down or to project the fingers 
downward, or to draw them together. Hanging 
without thought in such a position they are ready 
when needed for gesticulation. The awkward and 
disrespectful positions of the hands, as in the pock- 
ets, or behind the back, should be carefully avoid- 
ed. The fingers should not be permitted to work 
or play with each other, or with the buttons or 
clothes. 

10. 

Position of the Lower Extremities. The 
weight of the body should rest on one foot, rather 
than on both. The foot not sustaining the body 
should be thrown slightly forward or backward of 
the other, and should touch the floor with the ball 
rather than the heel. 



ELOCUTION. 359 

11. 

CiiANOK OF Position. This may be accomplished 
by throwing the weight on the foot at rest, and by 
those movements which animated delivery requires 
No change should be made directly forward, or 
directly sideways; but in an oblique direction. 
Changes must not be too frequent; nor so untie- 
quent as to tire the spectator. 

12. 
Carriage of the Head. The head should be 
sustained respectfully erect, not stiffly so. Much 
grace is exhibited by a handsome carriage of the 
head. In animated delivery it must partake of the 
spirit of the piece in its motions, but all bobbings, 
noddings, and shakings not called for by the senti- 
ment of the piece, must be most scrupulously 
avoided. 

13. 
Management of the Mouth. The almost uni- 
versal fault of keeping the mouth too much closed, 
the lips and teeth too near together, needs the par 
ticular and continued attention of the trainer and 
the trained. Drills on the vowel sounds with i\ e 
mouth as widely opened as possible, consistently 
with clear enunciation of the several sounds, have 
a good effect towards curing this bad habit. The 
difference of the same vowel sounds with the teeth 
closed and the teeth well apart, may be dwelt on 
by teacher and scholar. 
16 



B60 ELOCUTION. i I 

14. 

Management of the Lungs. The great evii 
in the use of the lungs is that they are permitted 
to remain too nearly in a collapsed condition. 
Full and deep respiration should be practised, and 
the habit established of commencing the delivery 
of a sentence, with full rather than with exhausted 
lungs. 

15. 
Management of the Eyes. The eyes possess 
more expression, and magnetic power, than the 
entire man besides ; and the person who cannot 
use them for impressing, convincing, or persuading 
his audience, can accomplish nothing in the way 
of oratory, sacred or secular. A vacant stare at 
the audience, or at one place in the midst of the 
audience or out of it, should be carefully avoided. 
The eyes should meet, intelligently and feel- 
ingly meet, those of distinct individuals, whose 
sympathy with the speaker cannot fail to arouse 
him to higher effort, and more complete success. 
The magic influence of the eye in rousing the in- 
different, in suppressing opposition, in awakening 
sympathy, no speaker can afford to undervalue or 
neglect. 

16. 
Expression of the Countenance. The ex 
pression of the countenance depends so much on 
that of the eyes, that little need be said further 
about it; yet. if in addition to a want of a sympa- 
thy of the eye with the sentiment uttered, there 
-hall be a stupid, impudent, or sneaking expression 



\ [ 



ELOCUTION. 36 1 

at' the countenance, the exhibition becomes intol- 
erably repugnant. 

17. 

(lENERAL Appearance. The general appearance 
must be in keeping with the varying sentiment of 
the piece delivered. The entire system must par- 
ticipate in and exhibit the sentiment. It is this 
self-abandonment which distinguishes the effective 
speaker, this forgetfulness of self and the yielding 
of every faculty to the absorbing, overpowering 
current of thouirht and feelins;, which constitutes 
the finished actor, or orator. 

18. 
Manner of Leaving the Stage. The stage or 
rostrum may be left without any demonstration, 
fVirther than a quiet, self-possessed retreat. But 
in case the audience have exhibited warm sympa 
thy with the speaker, a low bow is a suitable 
acknowledgment; and in case applause is contin- 
ued, a repetition of bows while the speaker retreath 
is desirable. In some cases a circular bow and a 
corresponding sweeping gesture with the hand is 
admissible. 

19. 
method of drilling a class. 

Remark 1. Awkwardness and bashfulness are 
only exhibitions of self-consciousness. These 
evils can never be directly overcome in the scholar; 
but they will vanish as he becomes interested in 
his teacher, and in the exercises. i 



362 ELOCUTION. 

Remark 2. All exercises should be commenced 
as concert exercises, the teacher first giving the 
example. By this means the teacher, perceiving 
who are the most successful, can excuse such by 
twos or threes, and thus reach, by degrees, those 
who need special attention. 

Remark 3. These drills must be introduced 
with prudence into schools, where they are new, 
and not much time given to them; a few minutes 
previous to each reading exercise. Otherwise the 
idea will get out that " the teacher spends so much 
time in his new-fan 2;led notions that the scholars 
do n't learn anything." 

Remark 4. These drills may commence with 
the most advanced reading class, after they shall 
have had a training in the articulate sounds for a 
few weeks, 

20. 
teacher's directions to pupils. 

Direction 1. The class will take their places on 
the floor at such distances that their hands will not 
interfere in gesticulation. 

Remark 1. It is desirable that as many as pos- 
sible stand where their feet can be seen by the 
teacher. 

Direction 2. You may all take the First Posi- 
tion as I take it^ body on left foot, right foot for- 
ward, head erect, hands down, not stiffly. Second 
Position. Body forward on the right foot, the left 
foot touching the floor with the toe only. First 
Position again. T'hird Position. Body on the 
right foot, the left in front. Fourth Position. 



ELOClfTION. 3g3 

Body on fi.e lefe foot, tl,o rij^l.t behind, restin.^ on 
the toe. l-,rst J>osition again, hands on the hips 
w,th fingers on the abdomen, thumbs back, clbow^ 
back, let them touch e.u-h other if possible, hands 
down. 

Du-crHon 3. Bow forward with head an,l body 
How to the right. Bow to the left. Bow forward 
and accompany the bow with the appropriate ges- 
ture of both hands. Bow to the right, with the 
accompaniment of the right hand. Bow to the 
left with the accompaniment of the left hand Bow 
to each other and take your seats. 

Remark 1. In repeating this drill, as it may 
be necessary to repeat it several days in successior, 
the ingenious teacher will introduce new move- 
ments, and vary the order of the transitions from 
any one position to the others. He may also in 
troduce a series of gesticulations as will be ex 
phiined under the head of Gesticulation. 

Remark 2. The management of the mouth 
eyes, eountenanee, and general appearance and 
eavmg the stage, will come up in conrection with 
the Individual Drills in Vocal Culture 



VOrAL ru LTURF. 



21 



Articulation. 



Accent. 



Rules. 



I.- -PRONUNCIATION. 

Errors. See introduction page 352. 
Breathing. •^ Objects to be attained. 
Methods of drill. 

Sounds — see Part II. Chart No. I. Page 52 
See Introduction Page. 
Objects to be attained. 
Methods of drill. 

Primary, . 

Common, -l Secondary, j 

etc. I 

{Nouns from Verbs. 
Adjectives from Nouns. 
Adjectives from Verbs. 
I Emphatic. 
^ Poetical. 

1. Follow the usage of the best Speakers. 

2. Consult the oest Dictionaries. 

3. Avoid any peculiarity that attracts attenli 



a 






ion. 



Pitch. 



Korce. 



Kate. 



f Sustained. 



II. — MODULATION. 

Terras: Key. Monotone. 

Classes— Medium, High. Very High, Low, Very Low. 

Errors. See Introduction Page 352. 
Objects to be attained. 
Methods of Drill. 

I Mpdium, Strong, Very Strong. 

I Wenk, Very Weak. 

i Swell, Vanish, Wave. 
Radical Expulsive Stress. 
Radical Explosive Stress. 
I Vanishing Stress. 

I Errors. See Introduction Page 352. 
I Objects to be attained, 
l^ Methods .i Drill. 

Classes— Medium, Fast, Very Fast, Slow, Very Slow. 
Errors. See Introduction Page 353. 
Objects to be attained. 
Methods of Drill. 

(364) 



VOCAL CULTURE. 



365 



Classes. 



Simple, 



Ri.iinjr. 



Falliri' 



( Rising Slide. 
'( Bend, 

( Falling Slide. 
J I'artial Close. 
I Teriect Cluse. 



Rise. 
Fall. 



f 



f Double Slide. 
i Upper Circumflex. 
Compound. \ Lower Circumflex. 
I Emphatic Sweep. 

I 
I Errors. See Introduction Page 35?>. 
1 Objects to be attained. 
I Methods of Drill, 
t Rules 1—8. 

- ( Common, Antithetic, 

Classes. I Cumulative, Deferred, 
Ci)nventional. 

By Elevation or Depression of Pitch 
By Increase or Diminution of Force. 
By Increase or Diminution of Rate. 
By Whisper. 
By Emphatic Sweep. 
I I By Rise or Fall of Emphatic Sweop. 

Emphasis, -j Methods. ,| By Upper Circumflex. 
] By Lower Circumflex. 
1 By Emphatic l*ause. 
1 By Change of Tone. 
I By Gesticulation. 

By Change of Countenance. 
^ By Change of Position. 
ETors. See Introduction Page 853. 
Objects to bo attained. 
Methods of Drill. 

p,, ( Pure, Orotund, Guttural. Nasal Aspirate, 

Classes. | s,„ooth, Harsh, Shrill, Husky, Tremuloua, 
Toue. \ Errors. See Introduction page ,35-"'. 
Objects to be attained. 
Methods of drill. 



Transition 



I Classes. ■< 



Of Sense, in Parejthesis, "Aside," eto. 

Of Paragraphs, Chapters, etc. [etc. 

Of Personation, in Dialogue, Colloquy, 
Errors. No Change. Too Little Changfo, Too Much 

Change. 
Objects to be attainei. 
Method ol DriU. 



^66 



VOCAL CULTURE. 



IIL — STYLE OF DELIVERY. 



f Xiirrative. 
I Didactic. 
Plain. { Persuasive. 

I Argumentative, 
t Colloquial. 

{ Haraorous. 
I Pathetic, 
I Plaintive. 
I Censorious." 
Impassioned. •{ Contemptuous. 
I Ironical. 
Mmid. 



Angry, 
etc. 



Passional. 



' Love. 
Fear. 
\ Hate. 
I Anger. 
I etc. 



Personal. 



Personating. •{ 



{Personal' ) L 
Peculiarities.) { 



(Personal 

! Peculiarities 
' National 



National 
& 



i 



Provincial. Provincial 



of Utterance. 
)f Gesture, 
of Countenance, 
of Habits. 
) f French. 
Uutcii. 
Irish, etc. 
Yankee. 
y •( Pennamite. 

II Southern, etc. 
I Cockney. 
j Flash, 
Peculiarities. J .^ Gawky, etc. 



22 

DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS, REMARKS AND 
DRILLS. 

Vocal Gultcre. The training of the organs ot 
speech for the more effective expression of thought 
and feeling. 

Remark. For definitions of Peonunciation, Ar- 
ticulation, Accent and its divisions, see Part II, 
pages 50 apd 51, section 16. See also Drill in ar- 
ticulate sounds, pages 23 and 55, section 17. 



f— — 

VUCAL CULTURE. ;^«i7 

i)K(I,l, IN BREATHING — TEACIIER's DIRECTIONS TO 
PUPILS. 

Remark. The Class will stand during tlie exer 
iscs. 

Direction 1. Throw the shoulders back, place ilie 
hands on the hips with the thumbs backward, carry 
the elbows as near back to each other as possible, 
witliout moving the hands from the hips. 

Direction 2. Draw in- breath noisrlessly while T 
raise-my hand. Exhale noiselessly while my hand 
falls. Extend the lungs to their utmost capacity, 
wliile you repeat the inhalation 

Direction 3. You may exhale suddenly as I drop 
my hand, but without any sound whatever. 

Remark. Deep breathing is a healthy exercise, 
calculated to enlarge the volume of the chest, and 
may take the place, to some extent, of out-door ex- 
?Tcise. Proper vocal culture will require deep 
breathing in all the exercises. 

Direction 4. Inhale as long as I raise my hand ; 
as I bring it down slowly utter the sound of a, and 
we will see who can give it unbroken, the longest. 
We will try this again ; again ; again ; very well. 

Remark. This exercise serves to train the pupil 
to the economical use of breath, to the habit of 
taking breath before commencing the delivery of a 
sentence, rather than in the evil liabit of taking: 
breath where the sense requires no pause ; and that 
of catching the breath in the midst of a syllable. 

Romark. Its chief advantage is in training 

the voice to a full, clear and strong delivery on 

the lower tones, and the teacher should direct his 
10* 



J 



368 VOCAL CULTURE. 

special attention to this form of training, giving 
the vocal on a lower key, and requiring its utter* 
ance with greater force, as the class can bear it. 

Direction 5. Inhale while I raise my hand, and 
in as low a tone as possible utter the sound o. 
Again, louder ; again, louder. 

Remark. Breath is spent much more rapidly in 
giving low tones than higher ones. 

Remark to the Teacher. You will now excuse a 
few of those who exhibit the greatest capacity of 
^.hest and drown the voices of the rest. 

Direction 6. (Calling the names of such) you 
may rest while I find the voices of the remainder 
of the class. 

Remark. Thus, in turn, sets of two or three oi 
more may be excused after each efi'ort, until you 
discover who have the feeblest voices, or the least 
control of them, and who of course need the great- 
est amount of attention and encouragement, to 
drill themselves in this exercise in their rooms, or 
in any other suitable place. Perseverance will not 
only serve to increase the power of the voice, but 
will actually increase the growth of the chest one, 
two, three inches or more, in a few weeks. 

Remark. No person who is faithful in this exer- 
cise, attending to it daily, and several times a day, 
need fear the consumption or bronchitis ; nor need 
he be deterred by making himself hoarse for the 
first few days. Hoarseness will of necessity result 
from any sufficient self-training, but should net be 
carried too far. 



r 



VOCAL CI i/ruRE. ZGO 

24. 

DRILL IN ARTICULATION AND ACCENT. 

Each scho.ar in turn may be called on to take 
Ills place in one end or corner of the room, and bo 
re(juired to read any pa8sage which he may select 
in this book or any other, in a wiiispcr, till he can 
be heard distinctly all over the room. The teach- 
er will take his place as far as possible from the 
scholar, and inform him of the articulate sounds in 
which he fails. The pupil of course selects pas- 
sages from the book without mentioning the page, 
so that he shall be understood, if at all, entirely 
by the distinctness and force of his articulation in 
the whispering exercise. Every pupil in the class 
will be called, and those who find the most difficul- 
ty in making their reading intelligible, must be 
rained repeatedly, and sufficiently, to reach the end 
aimed at in the drill. Short passages may be as- 
signed, which involve difficult combinations of sub- 
vocal and aspirate sounds. Collections of such 
may be found in almost any reading book. 

25. 

PITCH. 

Pitch. That quality of the voice which depends 
on the tension of the vocal chords, and the extent 
of the opening of the articulatory organs. 

High Pitch. That which results from a more 
than ordinary tension of the vocal chords, and a 
less than ordinary opening of the articulatory or- 
gans. 

Remark. Foi definition and enumeration of ^Ir* 
ticulafi)ri/ Organs^ see page 48, section 11. 



370 VOCAL CULTURE. 

LotV Pitch. That whicli results from a less tlian 
ordinary tension of the vocal chords, and more 
than ordinary opening of the articulatory organs. 

Key. The average pitch on vrhich any given 
passage is delivered. 

Monotone. The same pitch, either high, medium, 
or low, with no variation, other than required by 
accent and cadence. 

Remark. The Monotone is often thought to be 
Unvarying Low Pitch. 

26. 

DRILL ON PITCH. 

Eocercue. 1. The class may be called on to give the 
^iound o, in a medium pitch, with the teacher, and 
several times, till he perceives that they have all the 
same pitch. Then, the same sound in a low pitch ; 
then, in a very low pitch; then, in a high pitch; 
then, in a very high. 

Remark. This exercise must be varied and con- 
tinued, till all the class get not only the knowledge 
of pitch, but till every scholar, whether possessed 
of a musical ear or not, can give a sound in any 
pitch required. 

Exercise 2. The teacher will select some short 
passage, and require the class to read in concert, 
first in the ordinary pitch ; then a little lower; then 
lower still, and so on, until a point is reached, 
where but a few of the better male voices can read 
with a distinct articulation. Then, commencing 
again with the ordinary pitch, the reading of the 
passage may be repeated, and varied in the ascend 



VOCAL CULTURE. 371 

ing scale (ill a^ hiuh a pitch as may be consistent 
with distinct articulation is reached. 

Rem<irk 1. In pursuing these drills, females must 
he trained by themselves occasionally, while the 
males rest, and the plan of exercising the more 
I powerful voices by twos and threes practised, till 
the most feeble voices and the most timid jrirls are 
reached, and their difficulties met by special train - 
ins:. 

Remirk 2. This exercise must be varied and con- 
tinued, till every scholar can read any passage as- 
signed, in any pitch required, unaccompanied by 
the teacher or other scholars. 

Remirk 3. Particular attention must be paid to 
those scholars who have acquired the habit of read- 
ing or speaking on too high or too low a key for 
their voice. Every voice has its own key, on which 
it can sustain continued delivery with the greatest 
ease to itself, and with the greatest satisfaction to 
an audience. 

Remark 4. By frequent daily repetition of these 
exercises, on single sounds, and on sentences, in a 
low pitch with ever increasing force, a depth and 
strength of voice can be acquired which may be 
used, when required, with great effect in delivering 
emphatic words or passages. The exercise is well 
calculated to give the greatest compass and flexi- 
bility to the voice, and to bring it perfectly under 
control in this particular. 

Remark 5. Constant attention must be given to 
the QUALITY of the voice in all these drills. No 
husky, guttural or nasal tones should be tolerated; 



372 VOCAL CULTURE. 

but if RGcessary, special drilling should be given to 
every pupil who does not possess a clear, full, ring- 
ing voice ; in oth^r words, pure tone. One of the 
more common causes of impure tone is a want of 
sufficient opening of the teeth and lips. If that 
be the difficulty, illustrations of the difference of 
tone resulting from this cause must be given by the 
teacher, and the pupil must have no psace till the 
difficulty be removed. 

27. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL IN PITCH. 

LOW PITCH. 

Hold! Shame! Beware! Itisimpossiblo ! Scorn 
to be slaves. May my tongue cleave to the roof of 
my mouth. 

Bless the Lord, my soul, and all that is with- 
in me bless his holy name. 

HIGH PITCH. 

O, fie. My stars. Grood enough. Victory (they 
all shouted) Victory, (as loud as they could 
scream), VICTORY. 

To arms ! the Greek ! they come, the Greek ! I 
the Greek ! ! ! 

VARYING PITCH OR COMPASS. 

Falling. 
I know not what course others may take, but aa 
for me, give me liberty or give me death ! 

Rising. 
What! to attribute the sacred sanctions of God, 
and nature, to the massacres of the Indian scalping 
knife ; to the cannibal savage, torturing, murder- 
ing, devouring, drinking the blood of his mangled 
victims ! 



VOCAL CULIURE. oill 

28. 

FORCE. 

Force. That j roperty of the voice which de- 
pends on the pcwer with which air is driven over 
the vocal chords, by the action of the respiratory 
organs. 

Remark. For the definition and enumeration of 
the Respiratory Organs^ see page 48, section 11. 

Sustained Force. That which is continued 
through the delivery of a word, phrase, or sen- 
tence. 

Medium Force. That of ordinary delivery in the 
conversational or didactic style. 

Strong Force. That of loud tones. 

Yerv Strong Force. That of vociferous tones. 

Weak Force. That of soft tones. 

Very Weak Force. That of subdued or almost 
suppressed tones. 

29. 

DRILL ON FORCE. 

Remark 1. More difficulty is found in this mat- 
ter of force, than in all others connected with read- 
ing and speaking. Many pupils, by previous bad 
habits, or by timidity, or by affectation, have no 
apparent power to make themselves heard beyond 
a few feet. Hence teachers, fellow pupils, and 
visitors, are perpetually annoyed by such shams. 
Tke first exercise must be directed to the remedy of 
this evil, and if necessary, the last. 

Exercise 1. Let the class rise, take proper posi- 
tion, and give in concert the sound of o, in the me- 
dium pit?h and vith medium force; again, as the 



^.74 VOCAL CULTURE. 

the teacher sajs -'louder," with in?reased force ^ 
a:id so on at the word '-louder," with still inoreasing 
furce, till vociferous tones are reached, at least by 
some of the .class. Care must be taken that the 
medium pitch be preserved. 

Let those having the strongest voices sit down 
(calling them by name). Go through with the 
same drill with the remainder of the class, excus- 
ing two or three at a time of those who are most 
distinctly heard till the feeblest voices are reached. 
Train these by themselves repeatedly, in a similar 
manner, giving the sounds of different letters, oi 
different syllables and words. When some degree 
of force is developed on single words, short sen- 
tences may be read, by those timid, affected crea- 
tures till they can be heard in a remote corner of 
the room. After training several together, till 
this be accomplished, each such pupil may be 
taken separately and drilled till whatever force of 
voice or of character possessed shall be brought 
out and increased. The teacher may then pass 
into another room and shut the door, and require 
such pupils separately to read short sentences so 
that he can hear them; then longer ones. 

This exercise must be resumed every day, for 
many days, perhaps for weeks, till the difficulty be 
entirely removed. 

Exercise 2. Let the class give the sound of a 
vowel on a low pitch, and increase the force as 
before ; again, on a very low pitch. Such pupils as 
succeed the best may be excused; while those whose 



VOCAL CULTURE. 375 

voices are feeMe must be trained in proportion to 
their need, especially to acquire force in low pitch. 

Bxercisf 8. Reading in the monotone in very 
low pitch, with all possible force, serves to _i2:ive 
great strength and compass to the voice. This 
exercise may be varied by concert reading on the 
monotone, in high pitch, and very high pitch, with 
increasing force; and by alternating from reading 
in monotone in high pitch, to reading in monotone 
in low pitch ; from very high pitch, to very low, 
with different degrees of force as the teacher may 
direct, from medium to loud, very loud, vociferous; 
again from medium to soft, subdued, suppressed 
and whisper. 

Remark 1. Too much attention cannot be be- 
stowed in every drill on Pure Tone. 

Remark 2. It is frequently necessary to drill 
^he female voices separately, while the male voices 
rest. 

31. 

Varying Force. That which is increased or 
diminished, or both increased and diminished on 
the same syllable. 

Swell. The increase of force on one syllable. 

Yanlsh. The diminution of force on one sylla- 
ble. 

Stless. Force applied to one part of a syllable 
more than to another. 

Radical Stress. That applied at the coir_- 
mencement of a syllable. 

Vanirhino Stress. That applied at the end of 
a syllable. It is seldom used. 



> 



376 VOCAL CULTURE. 

Expulsive Radical Stress. The powerful ut- 
ttrance of a syllable at its commencement, dimin- 
ishing somewhat to the end. 

Explosive Radical Stress. The violent burst- 
ing forth of sound at the commencement of a syl- 
lable, diminishing somewhat to the end. 

Remark 1. The superiority of accomplished 
speakers consists much in the appropiate use of 
Varying Force; a matter which is almost entirely 
overlooked in the majority of books on elocution. 

Remark 2. Unremitting attention must be 
given in the following exorcises to PURE 
TONE. No slender, aspirated, husky, nasal, or 
guttural soun-ds should be tolerated unless required 
by the nature of the piece delivered. Nothing 
short of a ringing tone, as clear and as sweet as a 
bell, should satisfy the trainer or trained. 

32. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL IN SUSTAINED FORCE. 

Remark. Any of the following examples may 
be used for Exercises 1 or 3 in sustained force. 

LOUD. 

Look aloft. Watch, Watch. 

To arms, to arms, the foe, they come, they come 

Roll! on thou deep and dark-blue ocean, Roll! 

SOFT. 

Speak gently, she sleeps now. 

Come then; expressive silence, muse His praise. 

Ah ! few shall part where many meet, 
The snow shall be their winding sheet; 
And every turf beneath their feet 
Shall be a soldier's sepulchre 



VOCAL CULTIKE. 377 

WHISl'EK. 

Hark ! what is that noise? What tan it be? 
Let us go and find mother ! 

Hush! hark! a deep sound strikes like a rising 
knell. 

33. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL IN VARYING FORCE. 

0! Ah ! Hold. Woe. Shoulder arms. For- 
ward march. Rear column, halt. 

Rouse, ye Romans ! Rouse, ye slaves ! 

Strike 1 till the last armed foe expires, 
Strike, for your altars and your fires, 
Strike for the green graves of your sires, 
God — and your native land. 
Oh lieaven ! she cried. Can you not save him ! 
Oh ! save my husband. 

34. 

LAUGHING EXERCISE. 

Remark. Exercise in concert laughing occa- 
sionally, is desirable, not only as a drill in varying 
force, but for its enlivening effects on a class. 

Let the exercise commence on Ha ! ha! ha! ha 
and make a real laugh of it ; none of your dry, 
hollow, sham laughs — like this, Ha ! ha ! ha ! but 
a real, genuine, hearty, old-fashioned laugh all 
around — Ha ! ha ! ha ! ha ! The exercise mav be 
stopped by a sudden elevation of the hand as a 
signal. 

EXAMPLE FOR THE LAUGHING EXERCISE. 

^V''hat a funny old fellow that is! ha, ha, ha, ha. 
Did you ever see tlie like before? ha! ha! ha ! ha! 
Just look at his nose once ! if it is n't enough to 
make a horse laugh, ha ! ha ! ha ! Oh my eyes J 
what a nose, ha! ha! ha! ha I 



3 78 VOCAI, CULTURt. 

35. 

RATE. 

Kate. Rapidity of utterance, in tiie delivery 
of a sentence, or discourse. 

Remark 1. The proper rate of delivery in every 
passage will depend on the nature of the thought 
and feeling expressed, yet it should not be so slow 
as to become a continuous drawl, nor so fast in any 
instance as to prevent distinct articulation. 

Remarh 2. " Heading too fast," is a common 
fault and much attention is demanded to correct it. 
In drilling a scholar, to correct too rapid reading, 
he will generally read slower by making pauses 
between all the words. This should not be tolera- 
ted, but he should be taught to prolong the vocals 
and sub-vocals, and to articulate the aspirates more 
distinctly. 

Remark 3. Concert exercises will aid much in 
correcting too rapid reading, the teacher controlling 
the rate with his voice in each example at first. 
Rut they must not be relied on entirely. 

36. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL IN RATE. 

Remark. Any sentence whatever may be taken 
as material for drill in correcting too rapid readings 
this, for instance, or the following sentences : 

SLOW AND DISTINCT. 

God, who at sundry times and in divers manners; 
Bpake in times past unto the fathers by the proph- 
ets, hath in these last days spoken unto us by Ilid 
dear Son. 

! Jerusalem ! Jerusalem ! thou that kille-.t the 
prophets and stonest them that are sent unto thee. 



VOCAL CULTURE. 379 

how ol'teiy would I have gathered thy children to- 
licther, even as a hen gathcreth her chickens under 
her wings, and ye would nut ! 

RAPID AND DISTINCT. 

IIow far wilt thou, ! Cataline, abuse our pa- 
tience ? How long shall thy madness outbrave our 
justice? To what extremities art thou resolved to 
push thy unbridled insolence of guilt ? 

37. 

INFLECTIONS. 

Inflection. The continuous elevation or de- 
pression of the pitch in the delivery of a syllable, 
word, phrase or sentence. 

Explanation. By continuous elevation and de- 
pression is here understood that upward or down- 
ward sliding from one point to another, in the mu- 
sical scale by which the voice is heard at every in- 
termediate point. 

Simple Inflection. That which is entirely ri- 
sing or entirely falling. 

Rising Inflection. That in which the voice by 
a gradual tightening of the vocal chords and clo- 
sing of the articulatory organs, glides from a lower 
to a higher pitch. 

Falling Inflection. That in which the voice 
by a gradual relaxing of the vocal chords and 
opening of the articulatory organsj glides from a 
higher to a lower pitch. 

Rising Slide. The rising inflection continued 
through any single word standing independently, 
through several words, or throug) an entire Ben* 
tence. 



380 VOCA.. CULTURE. 

Explinatlon. The rising slide may be applied 
to sucli single words, as interjections, names of per- 
sons addressed, and equivalents for whole senten- 
ces; otherwise to several words in succession. 

Bend. The rising inflection applied to a single 
word standing at the end of a phrase, clause or 
sentence, to denote incomplete sense. 

38. 

METHOD OF DRILL IN RISING INFLECTIONS. 

Let the teacher select definite questions from this 
book, or any other, and read them with the rising 
slide ; then with the bend, or rising inflection on 
the last word only, for the purpose of showing the 
correct manner of delivering them ; also, for the 
purpose of showing the incorrect notation of such 
reading books as place the mark for the rising in- 
flection on the last word only of a definite ques- 
tion. 

Remark. If any mark is used, it ought to be 
placed at the beginning, rather than at the end of 
a question. 

The teacher having illustrated the nature of the 
rising slide, and the manner of using it, with his 
own voice, will call on the class to read short ques- 
tions in concert with himself; individuals in the 
class, to read the same, and other questions. In 
long questions, it will be well for the class all to 
take the pitch of the first word. This pitch should 
be much lower than the ordinary key, in order that 
the voice may have opportunity to rise through the 
whole question, witi out running so high, a.'^ to 
break. 



VOCAL CULTURL. 381 

tiemark. In reading very long sentences, con 
.•listing of several clauses, or meinbcrs, the voice 
\vill necessarily fall back at the connneucenicnt of 
ev-ery new clause to a pitch but a little higher than 
at the commencement of the preceding clause or 
member of the question. The pitch will become 
more and more elevated in every succeeding clause, 
till it culminates at the close of the last word ol' i1k 
entire sentence. 



EXAMPLES FOR DRILL IN RISING INFLECTIONS. 
RISING SMDK. 

Do you deny that ? Is that the man whom you 
expected ? Did you arrive in town yesterday ? 
Should we not all, both teachers, and scholars, be 
scrupulously careful to comply with the school 
regulations which we have adopted ? 

What? Might Rome then have been taken if 
these men who were at our gates had not wanted 
courage for the attempt? Rome taken, whilst I 
was consul? 

Has Great Britain any enemy in this quarter of 
the world to call for all this accumulation of navies 
and armies ? No sir, she has none. 

Hhall we acquire the means of effectual resistance, 
by lying supinely on our backs, and hugging the 
delusive phantom of hope, until our enemies shall 
liave bound us hand and foot? 

Do we never meet with charity which mel is at 
suffering; with the honesty which disdains and is 
}>robably superior to fiilsehood ; with the active 
beneficence which gives to others its time nid its 
labor; with the modesty which shrinks from notice 



\ 

I 

! I 



,i8lJ VOCAL CULTURE 



and gives all its sweetncvss to rctircn cut ; with the 
gentleness which breathes peace to all, and throws 
a beautiful lustre over the walks of domestic life? 

Was it not enough that sorrow robed the happy 
home in mourning ; was it not enough that disap- 
pointment preyed on its loveliest prospects ; was it 
not enough that its little inmates cried in vain for 
bread, and heard no answer, but the poor father'? 
sigh, and drank no sustenance, but the wretched 
mother's tears ; was this a time for passion, con- 
scienceless, licentious passion, with its eye of lust, 
its heart of stone, its hand of rapine, to rush into 
the mournful sanctuary of misfortune, casting 
crime into the cup of woe, and rob the parents of 
their only wealth, their child, and rob the child ol 
her only charm, her innocence ? 

Do we intend to violate that most solemn obliga- 
tion ever entered into by men, that plighting be- 
fore God of our sacred honor to Washington, when, 
putting him forth to incur the dangers oi' war as 
well as the political hazards of the times, we prom- 
ised to adhere to him in every extremity, with our 
fortunes and our lives? 

Remarlt. Other examples may be selected from 
almost any reading book in use in the school ; 
though these few afford sulfici^ent material and va- 
riety for drilling a class on this inflection, viz : the 
Bising Slide. 

40. 

BEND. 

As in Adam all die, so in Christ sha'l all bo 
made alive. 

Where the carcass is, there will the eagles be 
gathered together 



VOCAL CULTURE. 383 

R. murk. Other exiuuplos for drill in the use of 
Lhe Bend may be taken from any part of this bo( k, 
Dr any other. 

41. 

Falling Slide. The filling inflection continued 
through any single word standing independently, 
through several words, or through an entire sen 
tence. 

Explanation. The falling slide may be applied 
lO such single words as interjections, names of per- 
sons addressed, and equivalents for whole senten- 
ces ; otherwise to several words in succession. 

Partial Close. The falling inflection applied 
to a single word, commencing at a point above the 
key, and descending to it or slightly below it. 

Perfect Close. The falling inflection applied 
at the end of a sentence, commencing with the key 
and descending far below it. 

42. 

method of drill in the falling INFLECO^IONb. 

Let the teacher select indefinite questions from 
this book or any other, and read them with the fall- 
ing slide ; and then with the perfect close, or fall- 
ing inflection on the last word, only, for the pur- 
pose of showing the correct manner of delivering 
them, also for the purpose of showing the incor- 
rect notation of such reading books as place the 
mark for the falling inflection on the last word, 
only, of an indefinite question. 

The teacher having illustrated the nature of the 

falling slide, and the manner of using it, with his 

-^wn voice, will call on the class to read short in- 
17 



I I 

ii84 VOCAL CULT LI HE. i I 

definite quest'ons in concert with himself; then in 
concert, without his accompaniment; then on indi- 
viduals in the class to read the same or other ques- 
tions till they obtain the perfect control of the 
voice in this species of delivery. 

Remark. It is a good plan to require the read- 
ing of an indefinite question occasionally with the 
rising slide, then again with the falling, till the 
difference is clearly discriminated, and till every 
voice in the class can give either, on any sentence 
that may be proposed. 

A similar course may be pursued w^ith the closes, 
as with the falling slide, contrasting them with the 
b2nd, and requiring the class, and individuals who 
most need the drill, to give the bend when the sense 
demands the partial close, and vice versa. 

Remark. In the following exercises, selected 
more particularly for drill in falling inflections; ri- 
sing inflections, particularly the bend, will neces- 
sarily occur, and suitable attention must be be- 
stowed on their appropriate delivery. 

43. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL IN THE FALLING INFLECTION. 
FALLING SLIDE. 

Who is here so base that he would be a bond- 



man 



? 



W^here is the man whose moral courage is equal 
to the test of rising and pleading this cause 
against this host of the licentious and profane? 

How different would have been our lot this day 
had the revolution failed of success! 



VOCAL CJLTURE. 385 

TV hat can carry less the appearance of a design 
to fight than a man entangled with a cloak, shut 
up in a chariot, and almost fettered by a wife ? 

Who could guess, 
If e"ver more should meet those mutual eyes, 
Since upon a night, so sweet, such awful morn 
should rise ? 

Remark. In very long indefinite questions con- 
sisting of several members, the voice takes a high 
pitch at the commencement of the first member and 
falls continuously to its end ; then commencing the 
second member in a pitch not quite so high as at 
first, it falls to its end, and so on through the suc- 
cessive members ; each member commencins and 
ending a little lower than the preceding member 

What place would be drearer than the future 
mansions of Christ to one who should want sympa- 
thy with their inhabitants ; who couJd not under- 
stand their language ; who would feel himself an 
alien there ; who would be taught by those holy 
joys, of which he could not partake and for which 
he would have no relish, his own loneliness and 
desolation ? 

Why beholdest thou the mote that is in thy 
brother's eye, but considercst not the beam that is 
in thine own eye ; or how wilt thou say to thy 
brother : Let me pull out the mote of thine eye, and 
behold a beam is in thine own eye ? 

i To whom do we owe it, that the pure and pow- 

erful light of the gospel is now shed abrocd over 
these countries, and rapidly gaining on the dark- 
ness of the western world; that the importance of 
religion to the tenqjoral weliarc, and to the perma- 
nence of wise institutions, is here beginning to be 
felt in i*s just measure; that the influence is not 



386 VOCAL CULTURE- 

here as in almost every other section of Christen 
dom, wrested to purposes of worldly ambition ; that 
the hoi}' Bible is not sealed from the eyes of those 
for whom it was intended ; and that the best char- 
ities and noblest powers of the soul are not degra- 
ded by the terrors of a dark and artful supersti- 
tion. 

44. 

PARTIAL AND PERFECT CLOSES. 

Remark. The partial close is used to denote 
flense completed, but connected grammatically with 
that which follows ; the perfect close is used to de- 
note sense completed, but without grammatical con- 
nection with anything following. The closes arc 
also both used, when given intensely, for emphasis, 
even when the sense is not complete, as will be 
shown under the head of Emphasis. 

The history of the world is full of testimony to 
prove how much depends upon industry ; not an 
eminent orator has lived but is an example of it. 

With trembling hands, and faltering steps, he 
departed from his mansion of sorrow ; his eyes 
were dazzled with the splendor of the light ; and 
the face of nature presented to his view a perfect 
paradise. The jail in which he had been impris- 
oned stood at some distance from Pekin, and to that 
city he directed his course, impatient to enjoy the 
caresses of liis wife, his children, and his friends. 

Be perfect, be of good comfort ; be of one mind, 
live in peace. 

45. 

SERIES. 

Remark 1. In a succession of particulars, most 
reading books give directions to place the rising 



VOCAL CULTURE. 387 

inflection on the last member of a commencing se. 
ries, and on the last but one of a concluding se^ries. 
Though no speaker, while earnestly enga'ged in de- 
livering his own thoughts, ever conformed to these 
directions, it may be well, for the sake of the drill, 
to require a class to comply with these methods of 
delivery. 

COMMENCING SERIES. 

The poor, the sick, the aged and the wounded 
were left to perish. ' 

To advise the ignorant, to relieve the needy, and 
to comfort the afflicted, are duties that fall in our 
way almost every day af our lives. 

CONCLUDING SERIES. 

I protest against this measure as cruel oprres- 
sive, tyrannical, and vindictive. 

God was manifest in the flesh, justified in the 
spirit, seen of angels, preached unto the Gentiles 
believed on in the world, and received up into 
glory. ^ 

Remark 2. In a long series, the bend may be 
used, to avoid monotony, occasionally, but no defi- 
nite rule can be given in this matter. The judo-. 
ment and taste of no two readers would agree; nor 
would any ffood reader be likely to deliver such a 
passage twice, precisely alike, in respect to the in- 
flections. Take the following examples, for in- 
stance, on which the teacher and scholars can ex- 
ercise their voices and their taste : 

Neither blindness, nor gout, nor age, nor pen- 
ury, nor domestic afflictions, nor political disap- 
pointments, nor abuse, nor prosciipti )n, nor ne?- 
Ject, had power to disturb him. 



388 VOCAL CULTLKE. 

We do not pray, to instruct or advise God ; not 
to tell Him news, or inform Him of our vsants; nor 
do we pray, by dint of argument, to persuade Uod, 
t and bring Him to our bent ; nor that by fail 
speech we may cajole Him; or move His afiection 
toward us by pathetic orations ; not for any such 
purpose are we obliged to pray ; but because it be- 
comcth and behooveth us to do so ; because it is a 
proper means of bettering, ennobling, and perfect- 
ing our souls ; because it breedeth most holy aifec- 
tions, pure satisfactions, and worthy resolutions ; 
because it fitteth us for the enjoyment of happi- 
ness ; and leadeth us thither ; for such ends is de- 
votion prescribed. 

46. 

METHOD OF DRILL IN ALL THE SIMPLE INFLEC- 
TIONS COMBINED. 

Let the teacher select some piece in the reading 
book used, of rather simple grammatical construc- 
tions, and let the members of the class, each read 
one sentence, and describe his method of reading it. 
in respect to inflections. The remainder of the 
class will then be called on for criticisms ; first, in 
the inflections given ; secondly on the manner of 
describing them ; thirdly, on the words miscalled ; 
fourthly, on the words mispronounced, stating defi- 
nitely what sound was given, and what sound the 
correct pronunciation requires. This course must 
be pursued several successive daj^s, perhaps for 
weeks; at least, until every scholar shall become en- 
tirely familiar with the difierent inflections, and 
nhe technical names applied to them. No teacher 
should be satisfied, with calling the bend, the rising 



VOCAL CULTURE. 389 

inflection; or with calling the partial close, the fall- 
ing inflection, sihcc there are other inflections of 
both kinds. 

47 

COMPOUND INFLECTIONS. 

Compound Inflection. A combination of both 
the rising and falling inflections om the same word, 
phrase, clause, or sentence. 

Double Slide. The rising slide, or slides, on 
one member of an antithetic or conditional expres- 
sion; and the falling on the other, 

UprER Double Slide. That in which the rising 
slide, or slides, precede the falling. 

Lower Double Slide. That in which the fall- 
ing slide, or slides, precede the rising. 

No!e 1. The more emphatic member gen- 
erally takes the falling slide. 

Note 2. If the antithesis is between an 
affirmation or negation, the negation generally takes 
the rising slide. 

Note 3. It will be noticed that the rising slide 
terminates with a bend, when used in connection 
with the falling, to form the double slide. 

48. 

examples for drill on the double slides. 

Art thou he that should come, or dc we look for 
another? 

Has God forsaken the works of his own hands, 
jr does he always graciously preserve, and keep, 
and guide them ? 

As it was then, so it i.^ now. 



J90 VOCAL CULTURE. 

As in Adam all die, so in Christ are all made 
alive. 

It is sown in corruption, it is raised in incorrup 
tion. 

My son, if thou wilt receive my words, and hide 
my commandments with thee ; so that thou incline 
thine ear unto wisdom, and apply thine heart unto 
understanding ; yea, if thou criest after knowledge, 
and liftest up thy voice after understanding ; if 
thou seekest her as silver, and searchest for her, as 
for hid treasure ; then shalt thou understand the 
fear of the Lord, and find the knowledge of 
God. 

You were paid to fight against Alexander, not to 
rail at him. 

He declares Mr. Smith to be an honorable and 
trustworthy man, and not a hypocrite or knave, as 
you seem willing to insinuate. 

49. 

Circumflex. A combination of the rising and 
fklling inflections on one syllable or word. 

Upper Circumflex. That in which the rising 
inflection is heard first. 

Lower Circumflex. That in which the falling 
inflection is heard first. 

Remark 1. In the upper circumflex the rising 
inflection is often heard slightly, after the falling. 
as well as before it. 

Remark 2. Mandeville calls the upper circum- 
flex the wave; and the lower, the circumflex. 
McGuff'ey calls the upper circumflex, the falling 
3ircumflex, and the lower, the rising. 

Remark 3. Though the circumflexes may be 



VOv'AL CULTURE. 391 

placed in these two classes, their modifications and 
varieties are endless; no two being given jjrecisely 
alike. 

50. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL ON THE CIRCUMFLEXES. 

Yoa will bring your grammar to-morrow ? 
You will bring your grammar to-morrow f 
You will bring your grammar to-morrow .^ 
You will bring your grammar to-morrow f 

Ship a/ioy,' Ship «/io?/ .^ 

If we have no regard for our own character, wo 
ought to have some regard for the characters of 
others. 

Were there ten cleansed, but where are the nincf 

Should not children obey their parents in all 
things ? 

What will content you? Talent? No! Enter- 
prise ? No ! Courage ? No ! Keputation ? No ! 
Yirtue ? No ! The man whom you would select, 
should possess not one, but all of these. 

Remark. The words No in this last example 
Tiay be read with the lower circumflex, except the 
last, which should receive the upper circumflex, 
and perfect close, with considerable measure of 
force. 

Where grows? Where grows it not f 

What ! Might Rome have been taken ? Rome 
taken when I was consul ? 

Banished from Rome ! Tried and convicted 
traitor ! 

Prince Henri/. What's the matter? 
Faht<t(f. What's the matter f Here be four of 
us have taken a thousand pounds this morning. 
IT* 



_^ / 



392 VOCAL CULTURE. 

And this fellow calls himself a painter ? A 
Painter f He is not fit to daub the sign of a conn 
try ale-house. 

And this man is called a Statesman ? A States- 
man ! Why, he never invented a decent humbug. 

Remark. The last six examples are taken from 
McGuffey's Fifth Reader, where the words in italics 
are marked with the rising inflection. The class 
may read them with the rising inflection ; also, 
with the upper cii'cumflex and lower circumflex, 
and may then be called on to decide on the most 
appropriate delivery. If the upper circumflex be 
given to the words Painter and Statesman, ridicule 
is thrown on the idea given in the preceding sen- 
tences. If the same words be read with the lower 
circumflex, contempt is expressed for the persons 
spoken of. 

A man who is in the daily use of ardent spirits, 
if he does not abuse his wife and children, will 
eventually ruin his health and character. 

A lady who sufiers herself to use tobacco, if she 
does not ruin her health and character, makes her- 
self utterly repulsive and disgusting. 

The boy who plays truant occasionally, if he 
does not thereby lose all interest in his studies, 
will become an unreliable and worthless citizen. 

Remark. By the proper or improper use of the 
circumflexes in these last three examples, two en- 
tirely difi'erent sets of ideas will be given in read- 
ing them ; hence, they are very good example'^ 
for the discrimination of the circumflexes. 



( 



rz 



VOCAL CULTURE. dVl'A 

51. 

Emphatic Sweep. The combination of the slides 
and circumflixes for the purpose of emphasis. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL ON THE EMPHATIC SWEEP 

A cry of joyful surprise resounded through the 
court-room. The prisoner charged with murder 
was declared innocent. 

If I would not consent to be searched, it was be- 
cause I was a stranger to every one present; and 
because I had on my person a medal exactly simi 
I((r to the one supposed to be stolen. 

Remark. The above examples give the combi- 
nation of the rising slide, upper circumflex, and 
falling slide, in the same order as here mentioned. 

The poor girl paid him thanhfulli/, when she 
learned that her bill was oi\\y fiftij cents. 

Remark. In this example, the first emphatic 
sweep consists of the rising slide and the upper 
circumflex, on the word thanhfulhj; the second em- 
phatic sweep consists of the rising slide, slightly 
developed, and the lower circumflex on fifty cents. 

The man asked the Doctor whether he Mlled his 
wife. "No," said the Doctor. "Did you cure 
her?" " No." "Then you have no legal demand , 
according to our contract,'" said the man. 

Remark. Let the pupil describe each of the em- 
phatic sweeps in the preceding passage — i. e., tell 
what each one is made up of, which slides and 
which circumflex; also, in the following passage : 

" It amazes me that ministers don't write bettei 
sermons ; I am sick of the dull prosy aff"airs," said 
a woman in the presence of Dr. Nesbit. 

'' But it is no easy matter, my good woman, to 
write good sermons," suggested the Doctor. 



394 VOCAL CULTURE. 

" Yes," rejoined the lady, " hut you are so umg 
about it ; I could write one in half the time, if I 
only had the text." 

" 0, if a text is all you want," said Dr. Nesbit, 
" I will furnish that; take this one from Solomon : 
' It is better to dwell in a corner of a house top, 
than in a wide house with a brawling woman,' " 

" Do you mean me, sir?" inquired the woman 
quickly. 

"0, my good woman," was the response, " you 
will never make a sermonizer ; you are too quick in 
making your application." 

Remark. From these examples it will be seen 
that the emphatic sweep is the most complex form 
of inflection ; and that it is made up of every pos- 
sible combination of the slides and circumflexes ; 
also, that the emphasis concentrates itself in the 
circumflex, the slides being introductory, or con 
eluding in their character. 

52. 

RULES FOR INFLECTIONS. 

Remark 1. The classification of sentences is 
given on page 168, section 71. 

Remark 2. Interrogative sentences are divi- 
ded for purposes of delivery, into Definite, Inden- 
uite. Indirect, and Double. 

Definite Interrogative Sentence. One which 
may be answered by yes or no. 

Indefinite Interrogative Sentence. One that 
requires some other answer than yes or no. 

Indirect Interrogative Sentence. One which 
has the grammatical form of a declarative sentence. 

Double Interrogative Sentence. One in which 
the disjunctive or occurs. 



VOCAL CULTURE. 395 

Remark 3. Scarcely a rule can be 2:iv€n for tlie 
Inflections which is not liable to be modified or vio- 
lated by emphasis or impassioned delivery. Some 
of the cases in which such modifications or viola- 
tions most frequently occur will be given as cxcep 
tions. 

Remark 4 It may be said : " If no rule is re- 
liable, why gi7e any rules? " I give them as in- 
dicative of the most common usage ; but more, for 
the advantage of the drill which the examples un- 
der them alford. 

53. 

RULE I. 

Simple and complex declarative sentences, ai-e 
delivered with the bend, at the intermediate pauses; 
with the emphatic sweep, culminating on the em- 
phatic words; and with the perfect close at the end, 

Remark. The substitute for this rule, as given 
by authors who pay no attention to sentential 
structure, is substantially this : "Incomplete sense 
requires the rising inflection ; and complete sense, 
the falling inflection." 

54. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 
Simp le Decla ra t ivcs. 
In thy sight, O Lord, shall no man be justified. 

Many persons mistake the love, for the practice 
of virtue. 

Cumj^ lex Declar atives. 
Lysimachus, the teacher of Alexander, being an 
austere man, and a near relation of Olympias in- 
ured his pupil to hardy habits, which invigorated 
his constitution. 



396 VOCAL CULTURE. 

There are but few who know how to be idle and 
innocent. 

As fame is but breath, as riches are transitory, 
and as life itself is uncertain, it becomes us to seek 
a better portion. 

Ye who listen with credulity to the whispers of 
fancy, and pursue with eagerness the phantoms of 
hope ; who expect that age will perform the prom- 
ises of youth, and that the deficiencies of the pres- 
ent day will be supplied by the morrow, attend to 
the history of Rasselas, prince of Abyssinia. 

55. 
Exception 1. Earnest and sad delivery often re- 
quire the partial close at the intermediate pauses, 

56. 
EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

Earnest Delivery. 

From thy throne in the sky, thou lookest ; and 
hurlest the bolt of death. 

To smile upon those we should censure, Lo- 
renzo, and to countenance such as are guilty of 
bad actions, is bringing guilt on ourselves. 

Ah ! me, the laureled wreath that murder rears. 
Blood-nursed and watered with a widow's tears, 
Seems not so foul, so tainted, and so dread, 
As waves the nightshade round the sceptic's 
head. 

57. 
Sad Delivery. 
The path of sorrow, and that path alone, 
Leads to the land where sorrow is unknown. 

Touch not those ancient elms that bend their shade 
O'er the patriots' graves, for 'neath their boughs 
There is a solemn darkness even at noon 
Suited to such as visit at the shrine 



VOCAL CL'LrUUK. 



;i!); 



I)f serious liberty. No factious voice 
trailed them unto the field of generous fiime, 
But the pure consecrated love of home. 

58. 

Exception 2. Negative sentences and clauses art 
generally delivered with the rising slide and with 
the lower circumflex on the emphatic word; hence 
they terminate with the bend, instead of the per- 
fect close. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

Friends, it was not our purpose to injure you. 

It was not an eclipse that caused the darkness at 
the crucifixion of our Lord ; for the sun and moon 
were not relatively in a position to produce an 
eclipse. 

Now it is hardly to be supposed that he could 
have acquitted himself very well, as ill as he was 
last Saturday evening. 

59. 

Exception 3. The members of a series may be 
delivered partly or entirely with the partial close, 
instead of the bend, at the intermediate pause, or 
pauses, of the sentence of which they form a part. 

Remark. Most writers on Elocution give defi 
nite rules for the delivery of series, dividing thein 
into commencing and concluding series ; but for 
the reason assigned on page 386, section 45, I con 
sider such rules pernicious. Good taste, for the 
guidance of which no definite rule can be given in 
this cas<^, must determine the proper and peculiar 
delivery of every series that may occur. 



S98 VOCAL DILTURE. 

EXAMPLES FOK DRILL. 

Love, joy, peace, long suffering, g-entleness, 
goodness, faitli, meekness, temperance, are the 
fruits of the spirit. 

The science of Elocution is noMe, olegant, pleas- 
ing, refining, useful, intricate, philosophical and 
wonderful ; nevertheless some of the rules given by 
Elocutionists are trifling, erroneous and pernicious. 

The fruits of the spirit are love, joy, peace, long 
suffering, gentleness, goodness, faith, meekness, 
temperance ; against these there is no law. 

For I am persuaded that neither life, nor doa^h 
nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor 
things present, nor things to come, nor hight, nov 
depth, nor any other creature, shall be able to sep- 
arate us from the love of Grod, which is in Christ 
Jesus, our Lord. 

60. 

RULE II. 

Compound declaiative sentences are delivered 
with the partial close at the termination of the 
leading, and of all the co-ordinate sentences except 
the last, which takes the perfect close. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

Beauty is but a vain, a fleeting good ; 
A shining gloss, that fadeth suddenly; 
A flower, that dies almost in the bud ; 
A brittle glass, that breaketh presently : 
A fleeting good, a glass, a gloss, a flower, 
Lost, faded, broken, dead within the hour. 

And beside this, giving all diligence, add to your 
faith, virtue ; and to your virtue, knowledge ; and 
to your knowledge, temperance ; and to your tcm- 

I 



VOCAL CULTURE. 399 

peranee, patience ; and to your patience, godliness ; 
and to godliness, brotherly kindness ; and to broth- 
erly kindness, charity. 

I am crucified with Christ ; nevertheless I live ; 
yet not I, but Christ liveth in me ; and the life 
which I now live in the flesh, I live in the faith of 
the Son of God, who loved me and gave himself for 
me. 

Contrasted faults through all his manners reign ; 
1 hough poor, luxurious ; though submissive, vain; 
Though grave, yet trifling; zealous, yet untrue; 
And e'en in penance, planning sins anew. 

Gl. 
ExccjHion. If antithesis is expressed, one mem- 
ber will require the rising and the other the falling 
slide. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

I could honor thy courage, but I detest thy 
crimes. 

They slight my mean birth ; I despise their 
mean characters. 

You were paid to fight against Alexander ; not 
to rail at him. 

Let us retract when we can ; not when we must. 

It was by industry, perseverance and integrity 
that he obtained his political eminence; not by 
partizan tricks, chicanery and fraud, as most men 
of the dominant party obtain and retain their po- 
sition and influence now. 

, 62. 

; RULE III. 

I Definite Interrogative Sentences are delivered 

I with the rising slide, commencing })elow the key 
and ascending above it. 



.-J 



too VOCAL CULTURE. 

Note. 1. If the sentence is long, consisting of sev- 
eral members, it should be commenced with the 
pitch far below the key, and ascending through the 
first member it may conclude with the bend ; the 
second member should commence with the pitch 
slightly higher than the first, and ascending 
throuGch this member, it terminates with a bend 
somewhat higher than in the first member ; and so 
on through all the successive members to the end 
of the entire sentence. 

Note 2. Emphasis is generally given in definite 
questions by the lower circumflex. 

63. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

Did you say he walked to town yesterday ? 

Remark. Let successive scholars give the prece- 
ding sentence with the emphasis on each of the 
successive words, beginning:; with the first. 

Could not this man who opened the eyes of the 
blind, have caused that even this man should not 
have died ? 

Has not he himself, have not all the martyrs 
after him, poured forth their blood in the conflict? 

Are despots alone, to be reproached for unfeel- 
ing indifierence, to the tears and blood of their sub- 
jects ; are not republican rulers equally respon- 
sible ? 

Have the principles on which you ground the 
reproach on cabinets and kings, no practical influ- 
ence or binding force on cabinets and presidents? 

Shall we acquire the means of effectual resist- 
ance by lying supinely on our backs, and hugging 
the delusive phantom of hope, until our enemies 
shall have bound us hand and foot ? 



VOCAL CULTURE. 401 

(.'an we ever hope to witness on earth a puic ^nd 
doly generation, wiiile even parents utter their pol- 
lutinji' levities in the hearing of their own children ; 
and vice and humor and gaiety are all indiscrimi- 
nately blended into one conversation ; and a loud 
laugh is ever ready to regale the man who can pros- 
titute his powers of entertainment to the lowest 
species of profligacy and lasciviousness ? 

6k 
Note. If a circumstance follows an interrogative, 
tue same slide is continued throuirh the circum- 
stance. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

Did you arrivj in town this morninc:? said the 
teacher to James. 

" NVill you examine my work on Gymnastics? " 
shouted Mr. Smith to a group of boys — who seemed 
adepts in the science already. 

65. 

Exception 1. A definite interrogative usea as an 
exclamation, may take the falling slide. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

Was it not terrible ! Can it be possible ! Is it 
possible that my son should do such a thino- as 
that ! C'ould he think of retiirniiig under surh 
circumstances I 

GO. 

Exceiition 2. If a definite interrogative is re- 
peated, for the sake of being more distiiictlv un- 
derstood, or for the sake of emphasis, it may take 
the falling slide. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

JoJtji. Did you come from Cincinnati yesterday? 
Will. Sir? 



402 VOCA.L CULTtKii;. 

John. Did you come from Cincinnati yesterday f 

Has tlie geatleman done ? Has he completely 
done f 

67. 

Exception 3. In a series of definite interrogative 
sentences, the last may take the falling slide. 

Note. If the answers are given in a series of 
definite questions, they may be delivered with the 
rising slide, and lower circumflex on the emphatic 
word, except the last, which requires the perfect 
olose. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

Do you know me, sir? Am I Dromio ? 

Am I your man ? Am I myself f 

Am I not an apostle ? Am I not free ? Have 
I not seen Jesus Christ our Lord ? Are not ye my 
work in the Lord ? 

Are they Hebrews ? So am I. Are they Is- 
raelites? So am I. Are they the seed of Abra- 
ham? So am I. Are they the ministers (f Christ? 
t am more. 

Are you poor, and likely to want for necessary 
food ? The followers of Christ are, surely, more 
liberal than mere worldlings. Are you exposed to 
sickness and bodily pain ? True Christians have 
ever manifested their love to Christ by ministering 
to him in the persons of the afflicted and distressed. 
Are you mourning over the sins and follies of a mis- 
spent life? Jesus is ready to receive, even to the ut- 
termost, all that come to him in penitence and faith. 
Are you writhing under the anguish of blighted 
affections, and disappointed hopes ? In Jesus you 
find an object worthy of your heart's best afi"ections, 
and in his promises you may entertain such hopes 
as the wealth and power of this world can never 
realize. Do you desire eternal life f He alone has 
this boon to bestow. 



VOCAL CULTURE. 403 

68. 

RULE IV. 

Indefinite interrogative sentences are delivered 
with the frilling slide ; or with the rising slide to 
the emphatic word, and this taking the upper cir- 
cumflex, with the fulling slide to the end of the 
sentence. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

What stranger came into our school this morn- 
insr? Where did he come from? AVhen will he 
visit us again ? 

Why ! What evil hath he done ? 
Who hath warned you to flee from the wrath to 
come ? 

G9. 

Note. When the indefinite interrogative is suc- 
ceeded by a circumstance in the same sentence, the 
latter is delivered with the continuation of the 
same slide with the former. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

Who will come to our relief? said the terrified 
woman, as the flames approached the place where 
she stood with her babe in her arms. 

When shall I be set free ? said the dying man, 
with hope lighting up his countenance, to the phy- 
sician who stood at his bedside. 

70. 

Note. In a compound indefinite interrogative 
sentence, the successive simple or complex inter- 
rogatives are delivered each with a falling slide, 
commencing and ending somewhat lower than that 
of the preceding. 



104 v^OCAL CULTURE. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

By what title do yoa, Naso, sit on that chair 
and preside in judgment? by what right, Attius, 
do you accuse, or I defend ? whence all this so- 
lemnity and pomp of judges, and clerks, and offi- 
cers, of which this house is full ? 

Who is this that darkeneth words without knowl- 
edge? Where wast thou when I laid the founda- 
tions of the earth? Who hath laid the measure 
thereof, if thou knowest? or who hath stretched 
the line upon it ? Whereupon arc the foundation;} 
thereof fastened? or who hath laid the «ornei 
stone thereof? 

How shall I attempt to follow them through the 
succession of great events, which a rare and kind 
Providence crowded into their lives ? how shall I 
attempt to count all the links of that bright chain 
which binds the perilous hour of their first efforts 
for freedom, with the rich enjoyment of its con- 
summ-ation ? how shall I attempt to enumerate the 
posts they filled, and the trusts they discharged, at 
home and abroad ? 

71. 

RULE V. 

Indirect interrogative sentences are delivered 
with the circumflex inflections on the emphatic 
words. 

' N'ote 1. The circumflexes in this class of sentences 
require a greater flexibility of the voice than else- 
where. When two are given in one sentence, the 
first is generally the upper, and the second the 
lower, rising above the kev. 

Note 2. The same indirect interrogative may be 
mrrectly delivered in two or more different ways, by 
varying the application and use of the circumflexes. 



VOCAL CULTURE. AUo 

72. 
EXAMPLES FOR DRILL 

You came to town yesterdaijf tliil you not? 

Your brother wrote that article in the Tribune 
respecting the eleventh eommandmeut f 

Mr. Smitlis speculations in western lands have 
nearly ruined him, have they not? 

Surely, you will not think that I was guilty ol 
such an indiscretion as that ? 

You will grant him that small favor, I hope ; 
even, though he has injured you ? 

Only o»e failed of obtaining a first grade certifi- 
cate, eh ? Who was he ? 

John Turpin. 

John Turpin? Why, he was the best scholar in 
his class. He, surely, didn't fail on any of the 
questions proposed? 

Oh, no, but John has a mind of his own, you 
know, and the examiners were incapable of distin- 
guishing between independence and ignorance. 

Then John, you think, could have given the ex- 
aminers some valuable instruction ? 

Oh, no, they are too wise for that; they say, they 
are there to examine the candidates ; and not to be 
examined or taught hi/ the candidates. 

73. 

N^ctte. Interrogative exclamations and words re- 
peated as an echo to the thought, are delivered with 
one or the other of the circumflexes, according to 
the feeling designed to be expressed. 

Remark. In many reading books, expressions 
of this class are marked for the rising inflection. 
This delivery docs not agree with usage. 



i06 VOCAL CULrLxll.. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

Prince Henry. What 's the matter ? 
Fahtaff. What ''s the matter ? Here be four :i 
us have taken a thousand pounds this morning. 
Prinze H. Where is it, Jack? Where is it? 
Fals. Where is it f Taken from us, it is. 

And you call that fellow a poet, do ,you? A 
poet ! He could never even make the rhymes jin- 
gle in his doggerel. A poet ! Ha ! ha ! ha ! that's 
the last thing I ever should think of calling him. 

74. 

RULE VL 

Double interrogative sentences are delivered with 
the rising slide to the disjunctive or, and with the 
falling slide from it. 

Kote. The word or is generally delivered in the 
same pitch as the commencement of the sentence. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

Did you arrive last evening, or this morning ? 

Art thou he that should come, or do we look for 
another ? 

Is there nothing that whispers to that right hon- 
orable gentleman, that the crisis is too big, that the 
times are too gigantic, to be ruled by the little 
hackneyed and every-day means of ordinary cor- 
ruption ; or are we to believe that he has within 
himself a conscious feeling, that disqualifies him 
for rebuking the ill-timed selfishness of his new 
allies? 

75. 

RULE VII. 

Compellatives in familar discourse are delivered 
with the rising slide, but in earnest or respectful 
discourse, may be delivered with ^he f-^Ilin"' -iwi^ 



VOCAL CULTURE. 407 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

Jolin, what are you about there ? 

Sammy, my fine fellow, you are just the one 1 

;\'anted to see. 

Mary, I should hardly have thought that of you. 

Friends, countrymen and lovers, hear me for my 
cause, and be silent that you may hear. 

Remark. If the compellatives in the two last and 
similar examples are given with the falling slide, 
and with the pitch much depressed on each sue 
ceeding word, the delivery will be much more im- 
pressive than with the rising slide on each; or than 
with the rising slide on all but the last, and the 
falling slide on that. 

Mr. President, Ladies, Gentlemen, and Friends 
This is surely no ordinary occasion. 

Ye hypocrites ! ye vipers ! who shall deliver you 
from the wrath to come ? 

76. 

RULE VIII. 

Parentheses are delivered with inflections accord- 
ing to preceding rules; but with increased rate, de- 
Dressed pitch, and diminished force. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

Know ye not, brethren, (for T speak to them that 
know the law,) that the law hath dominion over a 
man as long as he liveth ? 

She had managed this matter so well (oh ! she 
was the most artful of women !) that my father's 
heart was gone before I even suspected it was in 
ia«ger. 



408 VOCAL CULTURE. j I 

77 

RULE IX. 

Mixed sentences are delivered according to tlie 
rules applicable to each of their parts. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

He kept repeating in an under tone: Gone? 
Gone? is it possible that she has gone ^ilh some 
one else ? 

My friends often asked : What are you going to 
do with yourself when you get an education? Are 
you going to come out a poet or a ninny ? 

78. 

RULE X 

Poetry is delivered with the same inflections and 

emphasis as the same class of sentences requires in 

prose. 

Nuta Bene. Let there be no recognition of the 

metrical construction in the delivery of poetry, un- 
less it is the design to sing it. 

Rcmarh. Poetry, properly constructed, will 
yield, really, the most pleasure to the ear, when 
these directions are carefully complied with. 

METHOD OF DRILL FOR POETRY. 

Let the teacher select such easy, flowing, melo- 
dious pieces as are most likely to be sung by schol- 
ars, rather than read; and let him contrast the 
faulty methods of delivery with the correct, before 
he shall call on the scholars to read them. If still 
any pupil shall be governed by the measure more 
than by the sense in his delivery, let the teacher 
deliver the same passage — and caricature the fault, 
saying when he has done: " You did not read half 
as badly as that, but somewhat in that manner. I 



\ I 



VOCAL CULTURE. 400 

.yisli jou to try and avoid it altogether. You may 
read that passage again, if you are willing." 

79. 

EMPHASIS. 

Emphasis. Any means by which a word, phrase, 
or sentence, is rendered more impressive than the 
words, phrases, or sentences with which it standi^ 
connected. 

Ordinary Emphasis. That placed on a word or 
phrase, without relation to any other emphasized 
word, phrase, or sentence. 

Antithetic Emphasis. That placed on two or 
more related words or phrases in different members 
of a sentence, to exhibit the relation more clearly. 

Explanation. As antithesis is the most com- 
mon relation thus exhibited, it gives its name to 
this class of emphasis. 

Cumulative Emphasis. That placed on succes- 
sive words or phrases in the same member of a sen- 
tence, to make them increasingly impressive. 

Deferred Emphasis. That which is retained in 
the delivery of a succession of particulars of in- 
creasing importance, till the utterance of the last. 

Conventional Emphasis. That given in some 
common expressions by general usage, without re- 
gard to the sense. 

80. 
methods of giving emphasis. 
Rpmarl:. These are so various and complicated, 
that it will require too much space to give a com- 
plete analysis of them. The more common meth- 
ods are fji'ven in the outline on oage 305. It will 



r 1 

I 



410 VOCAL CCTLTLRE. 

be my purpose, only, to give such examples liere, 
as will illustrate, m as brief a space as possible, 
the different classes of Emphasis, and as will af- 
ford the teacher the means of drilling his class in 
most of the methods comprised in the outline, and 
in any other that may occur to him. 

81. 

METHOD OF DRILL IN EMPHASIS. 

1. Let the teacher select such passages from this 
book, or any other, as shall illustrate the different 
CLASSES of emphasis, and give the proper delivery of 
one example; then call on the class to give in con 
cert the same passage; then let him call on indi- 
viduals to give the same or other similar passages, 
till every one is able to distinguish the different 
classes of emphasis and to deliver them properly. 

2. Let the teacher select such passages as shall 
illustrate the different methods of emphasis, and 
pursue a similar course as with the classes, and 
dwell on each method long enough, and with a suf- 
ficient variety of examples, so that its propriety and 
force shall be acknowledged and felt by the class, 
and the majority of the class shall be able to avail 
themselves of the different methods, in a measure, 
spontaneously, in the delivery of selected or origi- 
nal pieces. 

Remark. No department of vocal culture affords 
so appropriate a field for the cultivation of good 
taste, and judicious management of the voice and 
expression of the countenance as that of emphasis. 
If never before, here is the place to remove all sing- 
song tones, to extinguish all boarding school affce- 



VOCAL CULTURE. 411 

tation, to infuse so much vivacity, fee'.ing and soul 
into the pupil, that all tendency to a mechanical 
delivery shall be lost, in his appreciation of his 
subject, and in his effort to arouse suitable sympa- 
thy in his audience. 

82. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL IN CLASSES OF EMPHASIS. 
ORDINARY EMPHASIS. 

I>id you say that I was not in school yesterday ? 

Remark. Ordinary Emphasis may, in different 
readings of this question, be placed on any word in 
it; and the drill requires that every scholar shall be 
able to read this or any similar sentence, and place 
the emphasis as he is directed by the trainer. 

No man may put off the Law of God. Evil com- 
munications corrupt good manners. Do you think 
you will walk to town to-day ? 

83. 
axtithetic emphasis. 

Single Antithesis. 

It is better to mend our faults than to hide them. 

He who cannot hear a joke should never give 
one. 

I come to him/ Cassar, not to praise him. 

It is sown in weakness; it is raised in power. It 
is soion a natural body ; it is raised a spiritual 
body. 

Douhle AntitJu'sis. 

It is sown in iceakness ; it is raised in power. 

It is sown a natural body ; it is raised a spiritual 
body. 

It is better to trmt in the Lord than to put confi' 
dcncc in Princes. 



u. 



412 VOCAL CULTURE 

Although the Jif/- tree shall not hlossom, neither 
shall fruii be found on the vines^ the labor of the 
olioe shall fui/, and the fields shall yield no meat^ 
the Jlock shall be cut off from the /oA/, and there 
shall be no herd in the stalls ; yet 1 will rejoice in 
the Lord. I will joy in the God of my salvation. 

Remark. This passage admits of a great variety 
of emphasis. It may be read with the ordinary 
rather than with the antithetic, or with the single 
antithesis rather than with the double. It may be 
read also with the triple antithesis. 
Triple Antithesis. 

She always called the misfortunes of otJicrs, judg ■ 
ments; while she considered the calamities that be- 
fell herself, afflictions. 

A friend cannot be known in irrosperity^ an en- 
r.my cannot be hidden in adversity. 

84. 

CUMULATIVE EMPHASIS. 

I tell you, though you, though the Whole World, 
though an ANGEL FROM HEAVEN, were to 
declare the truth of it, I would not believe it. 

Were I an American, as I a.m an Englishman, 
while a single foreign troop remained in my coun- 
try, I would never lay down my arms. Never ! 
Never!! NEVER!!! 

We have petitioned, we have remonstrated, we 
have SUPPLICATED, we have PROSTRATED our- 
selves at the foot of the throne. 

Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I am 
for the declaration. 

83. 

DEFERRED EMPHA9IB. 

The knowledge, power, wisdom, holiness, and 
goodness of God are all unbounded. 



VOCAL CULTURE. 413 

Remark. Any of tlie examples given under 
cumulative, may be used as examples for deferred i 
emphasis. 

86. 

nONVENTIOXAL EMPHASIS. 

Dry Goods, Groceries, Yankee Notions, and so 
forth. 

From day to day ; from man to man. 

Remark. To show that the emphasis is conven 
fionaJ, and not ordinary^ in these examples, I will 
give others in which the ordinary emphasis may 
be given under similar circumstances. 

Dry G-oods, Groceries, Yankee Notions, and so 
on to the end of the list. 

From everlasting to everlasting. He is the same. 

87. 

KXAMTLES FOR DRILL ON THE METHODS OF 
EMPHASIS. 

Remark. Almost any of the preceding examples 
may be used for illustrating emphasis as effected by 
elevation of pitch, and increase of force. 

DEGRESSION OF PITCH AND DIMIXDTION OF FORCE. 

You know that you are Brutus, that speak this, 
Or, by the yods^ this speech were else your last. 

Yet half I hear the parting spirit sigh, 
" It is a dread and awful thing to die. " 

DEPRESSION OP PITCH AND INCREASE OF FORCE. 

1 scorn your proffered treaty ; the pale fact^ I <lefy, 
Revcnye is stamped upon my spear, and hlood my 
battle cry. 

If influenced by local pride, or ijanirrencd ])v 
State jealousy, I get up here to abalo a tithe of a 



114 VOCAL CULTURE. 

9 

hair from his just character, and just fame — ma^ 
my tongue cleave to the roof of my mouth. 



WHISPER. 

And the deep thunder peal on peal afar, 
iVnd near the beat of the alarming drum. 
Roused up the soldier, ere the morning star, 
While thronged the citizens with terror dumb, 
Or whispering, with white lips, " The foe^ they come, 
they corned 

INCREASE OR DIMINUTION OF RATE. 

Remark. A sufficient variety of examples to il- 
lustrate these methods may be found in connection 
with other methods. 

CHANGE OF ACCENT. 

He shall t'/zcrease, but I shall cZecrease. 
There is a difference between giving and for- 
111 vino-. 

In this species of composition pZawsibility is 
much more desirable than p?'o6ability. 

89. 

EMPHATIC SWEEP. 

Are not you, sir, who sit in that chair, is not he, 
our venerable colleague near you, are you not both 
the predestined objects of punishment and ven- 
geance ? Cut off from all hope of royal clemency, 
what are you, what can you be, while the power 
of England yet remains, but out-laws? 

EMPHATIC PAUSE. 

Woe, — woe, — \ioe, — to the inhabitants of the 
earth. 

Strike — till the last armed foe expires, 
Strike — for your altars and your fires. 



VOCAL CULTURE. 4 It 

Strike — for the green graves of \ our sires, 
God — and your native land. 

U, woman ! — in our hours of ease 
Uncertain, — eoy, — and hard to please, 
And — variable — as the shade, 
By the light (juivcring aspen made ; 
When pain and anguish wring the brow, 
A ministering anijcl — thou. 

The war that for a space did fail, 

Now trebly thundering, swelled the gale, 

And — Stanley — was the cry. 

I know there is not a man here, — who would not 
rather see a general conflagration — sweep over the 
land, — or an earthquake — sink it, — than one jot or 
tittle of that plighted faith fall to the ground. For 
myself, having twelve months ago, in this place, 
moved you, that George Washington be appointed 
commander of the forces raised, or to be raised, for 
the defense of American liberty; may my right 
hand forget her cunning — and my tongue cleave to 
the roof of my mouth — if I hesitate — or waver — in 
the support I give him. 

91. 

TONE. 

Tone. That quality of the voice which depends 
on the proper, or improper use of the articulatory 
and vocal organs ; also, on their healthy or dis- 
eased condition. 

Pure Tone. That clear, ringing, bell-like sound 
which can result only from a proper arrangement 
and healthy condition of the vocal and articulatory 
organs. 

Remark 1. If the trainer has been competent 
and faithful thus far, his pupils will by this time 



413 VOCAL CULTUlllfi. 

uot only understand the nature of pure tone 
but they will possess the ability and the desire to 
use it. 

Remark 2. The nasal, guttural, aspirated and 
husky tones should all be avoided — scrupulously 
avoided — in ordinary and protracted delivery ; but 
each may be used with good effect to give expres- 
sion to some passion or emotion, as will be illus- 
trated in the following examples. 

92. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL IN IMrURE TONES. 
NASAL TONE. 

And this Cmsar has become a god^ and Cassius 
a wretched creature. 

How like a fawning publican he looks, 
I hate him, for he is a Christian. 

GUTTURAL TONE. 

Thou slave ! thou wretch ! thou coward ! 
Thou little valiant, great in villainy ! 
Thou ever strong upon the stronger side ! 

ASPIRATED TONE. 

Oh ! mercy ! mercy on us ! What is that? Didn't 
you hear it? Don't you see it? Oh! Mercy! 
Mercy ! The Lord have mercy on us ! 

TREMULOUS TONE. 

Pity the sorrows of a poor old man. 
Whose trembling limbs have borne him to your door 
Whose days are dwindled to the shortest span, 
Oh ! give relief, and Heaven will bless your store 

93. 

STYLES OF DELIVERY. 

Style of Delivery. That peculiar adaptation 
of Key, Force, Rate, Inflections, Emphasis. Tone 
and Personation, required to impress any given 



( 



r 



VOCAL CULTURE. 417 

s-tyle of thought and feeling; to awaken any partic- 
ular kind of emotion, or to represent any passion, 
habit, or usage, whether individual, provincial, or 
national. 

Remark. Instead of definitions one or two brief 
examples will be given for drill, under each style 
of delivery. It is expected here, as elsewhere, that 
each scholar will be drilled on each example given. 
It is found to serve a better purpose to drill all the 
pupils of a class on one or two appropriate exam- 
ples, than each one on a different example. It is 
well to require the whole class to memorize one or 
more of the examples every day, that they may 
give them without the book. 

METHOD OF DRILL. 

1. Let the pupil who is called on, for reading or 
speaking, take his place in a proper manner on the 
rostrum. Let his position, bow, and manner of 
liolding the book receive due attention. If he 
shall not succeed in complying with the directions 
given by the teacher, let him be excused, while the 
teacher gives an example on the rostrum of the 
manner in which he would have the pupil perform 
his part. If necessary, the teacher can caricature 
the errors of the pupil, and awkwardness in general, 
always encouraging the pupil, by assuring him 
that his errors are not as gross as those of the car- 
icature. 

2. The class mai/ be called on for criticism in 
the case of each pupil under dril], bofore the teacher 
■^liall offer my corrections 



J 



418 VOCAL CULTURE. 

3. The exerciso may be varied by concert read 
ing, or concert speaking of any one of the exam 
pies given ; the teacher having first read or spoken 
the piece alone, then in concert with the class ; the 
class will then read or speak the piece without the 
teacher; while he gives his special attention to the 
most faulty. 

4. Gesticulation may be introduced into these 
concert exercises with good efi'ect; the teacher al- 
ways leading the way by first giving the example 
with appropriate gestures, before he shall require 
them of the class. 

94. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

Narrative Style. 

The late Kev. Mr. W. relates the following cir- 
cumstance in one of his journals: Wednesday, 9th. 
I rode over to a neighboring town to wait on a 
Justice of the Peace, a man of candor and under- 
standing, before whom, I was informed, their an- 
gry neighbors had carried a whole load of these 
new heretics, (the Methodists.) But when he 
asked them what they had done, there was a deep 
I silence, for that was a point the persecutors had 
forgot. At length, one said: "Why, they pretend 
to be better than other people ; and besides, they 
pray from morning to night." The Justice asked, 
" But have they done nothing else ? " " Yes sir," 
said an old man, " an't please your worship, they 
have convarted my wife. Till she went among 
them, she had such a tongue ! and now she is as 
quiet as a lamb." " Carry them back ! carry them 
back! " said the Justice, "and let them convert all 
th^ scolds in the town." 



VOCAL CULTURE. 419 

95. 

Didactic Style. 

Ihere is nothint^ more characteristic of a true 
LMiristian than humility. It is the first ".esson that 
).e learns in the school of Christ, and is the source 
)f contentment and solid peace of mind. If he 
Hears that any one has reviled him, he is ready to 
say, with the philosopher, "Had he known mo bet- 
ter, he would have said worse things of me than 
that." The fiercest storms of adversity blow over 
hira. Humility gives a pliancy to his mind, which 
saves it by yielding to the force it cannot resist; 
like the weak and bending reed, that weathers out 
the tempest, which fells the tall and sturdy oak. 

In the evening of the day on which Sir Eadly 
Wilmot was appointed Chief Justice of England, 
one of his sons, a youth of seventeen, attended him 
to his bedside. " Now," said he, " my son, I will 
tell you a secret worth knowing, and remem- 
bering. The elevation I have met with in life, 
particularly the last instance of it, has not been 
owing to my superior merit or abilities, but to my 
hnmility^ to my not having set myself up above 
others ; and to a uniform endeavor to pass 
through life void of offence toward Grod and man." 
Thus humility is the way to lienor. 

96. 

Persuasive Style. 

Whatever plans of liberality you may have before 
you, it is well not to procro.stinate, but to improve the 
tirst opportunity of executing them How niucli 
more satisfaction does the truly bont^ficent man do- 
rive from his daily ap^oropriation of his wealth than 
did Stephen Girard in hoarding property for some 
other person to appropriate it. None can so well 
use property as he who earns it. Suppose Girard had 
himself established the Asylum for Orphans, llow 
much satisfaction he must have derived from the 



i20 VOCAL CULTURE. 

comfort, improvement, and promise of the thousands 
that his vast wealth might have rescued from penury 
and crime. Could he now witness the gross misap- 
plication in lavish expenditure of that which he gath- 
ered so carefully, and guarded so scrupulously, how 
keen and continuous the pangs would be, that he 
had not given the money its just direction by his own 
administration while living. 

I repeat it, then, my friends, enjoy your own 
means by applying them to such objects of charity 
and usefulness as may seem most worthy of them, 
and as will yield you the greater amount of pleasure 
in the appropriate and economical disposition of them. 

97. 

Argumentative Style. 

Sink or sAvim, live or die, survive or perish, I give 
my hand and my heart to this vote. It is true, in- 
deed, that in the beginning, we aimed not at inde- 
pendence. But there is a divinity which shapes our 
ends. The injustice of England has driven us to 
arms; and blinded to her own interest, she has obsti- 
nately persisted, till independence is now within our 
grasp. We have but to reach forth to it, and it is 
ours. Why then should we defer the declaration? 
Is any man so weak, as now to hope for a reconcilia- 
tion with England, which shall leave either safety to 
the country and its liberties, or security to his own 
life, and his own honor? Are not you, sir, who sit in 
that chair, is not he, our venerable colleague, near 
you, are you not both, already the proscribed and 
predestined objects of punishment and of vengeance? 
Cut off from all hope of royal clemency, what are you, 
what can you be, while the power of England re- 
mains, but outlaws^ 

If we postpone independence, do we mean to carry 
on, or to give up the war? Do we mean to submit, 
and consent that we shall be ground to powder, and 
our country and its rights trodden down in the dust? 
I kytow we do not mean to submit. We never shall 
submit! Do we intend to violate that most solemn 
obligation ever entered into by men, that plighting, 
before Cod, of our sacred honor to Washington, w^hen, 
putting him forth to incur the dangers of war, as well 



J 



VOCAL CULTIJIIE. 4iJl 

as the political hazards of the times, wo promised to 
adhere to him in every extremity, with our t'ortunes 
and our lives? I know tliere is not a man hrre, who 
would not rather see a general conflagration sweep 
over the land, or an earthquake sink it, than one jut 
or tittle of that plighted faith fall to the ground. 
For myself, having twelve months ago, in this phice, 
moved you, that George Washington be appointed 
commander of the forces raised, or to be raised for 
the defense of American liberty, may my riglit hand 
forget her cunning, and my tongue cleave to the roof 
of my mouth, if 1 hesitate or waver in the support I 
give him. 

98. 
Colloquial Style. 

(Sf.enc. — Dr. Gregorys Study. Enter a plump Glasgow 

merchant.) 

Patient. Good morning. Dr. Gregory! I'm just come 
into Edinburgh about some law business, and I 
thought when I was here, at any rate, I might just as 
weel take your advice, sir, about my trouble. 

Dr. Pray, sir, sit down. And now, my good sir, 
what may your trouble be? 

Pa. Indeed, doctor, I'm not very sure; but I 'm 
thinking it's a kind of weakness that mak(\s me dizzy 
at times, and a kind of pinlcling about my stomach ; 
— I 'm just na right. 

Dr. You are from the west-country, I should sup- 
pose, sir? 

Pa. Yes, sir, from Glasgow. 

Dr. Ay; i)ray, sir, are you a glutton? 

Pa. God forbid, sir; I 'm one of the plainest men 
living in all the west-country. 

Dr. Then, perhaps, you are a drunkard? 

Pa. No, Dr. Gregory; thank God, no one can ac- 
cuse mc of that. I 'm of the dissenting persuasion, 
doctor, and an elder; so you may suppose I 'm na 
drunkard. 

Dr. I '11 suppose no such thing till you tell me 
your mode of life. I'm so much puzzled with your 
symptoms, sir, that I should wish to hear in detail 
what you do cat and drink. When do you breakfast, 
and what do you take at it? 



i22 VOCAL CULTURE. 

Pa. I breakfast at nine o'clock; take a cup of 
coffee, and one or two cups of tea, a couple of eggs, 
and a bit of ham or kippered salmon, or, may be, 
both, if they 're good, and two or three rolls and but- 
ter. 

Dr. Do you eat no honey, or jelly, or jam, at 
breakfast? 

Pa. Oh, yes, sir! but I don't count that as any- 
thing. 

Dr. Come, this is a very moderate breakfast 
What kind of a dinner do you make? 

Pa. Oh, sir, I eat a very plain dinner indeed. 
Some soup, and some fish, and a little plain roast or 
boiled; for I dinna care for made dishes: I think, 
some way^ they never satisfy the appetite. 

Dr. You take a little pudding then, and after- 
vards some cheese? 

Pa. Oh, yes! though I don't care much about 
chem. 

Dr. You take a glass of ale or porter with your 
sheese? 

Pa. Yes, one or the other; but seldom both. 

Dr. Y^'ou west-country people generally take a 
glass of Highland whisky after dinner? 

Pa. Yes, we do ; it 's good for digestion. 

Dr. Do you take any wine during dinner? 

Pa. Yes, a glass or two of sherry; but I 'ra indif- 
fei ent as to wine during dinner. I drink a good deal 
of beer. 

Dr. What quantity of port do you drink? 

Pa. Oh, very little; not above half a dozen glasses 
or so. 

Dr. In the west-country, it is impossible, I hear, 
to dine without punch? 

Pa. Yes, sir; indeed, 'tis punch we drink chiefly, 
but for myself, unless I happen to have a friend with 
me, I never take more than a couple of tumblers or 
.'K), and that 's moderate. 

Dr. Oh, exceedingly moderate indeed ! You then, 
after this slight repast, take some tea r..nd bread and 
butter? 

Pa. Yes, before I go to the counting-house to read 
the evening letters. 

Dr. And on your return you take supper, I sup- 
pose? 



VOCAL CULTURE. 423 

Pa. No, sir, I canna be said to take suppei; just 
somotliing before going to bed ; — a rizzered haddock, 
or a bit of toasted cheese, or a half-hundred of oys- 
ters or the hke o' that, and may be, two-thirds of a 
bottle of ale; but I take no regular supper. 

99. 

Rem<irk 1. It will be well at this stage, in thu 
progress of a class, to take up the reading and 
speaking of poetry. Suitable pieces in the various 
styles can be selected from almost any reading 
book in use. For want of room, such pieces can- 
not be given here. 

Remark 2. Scholars may be requested to select 
favorite pieces, in prose or verse, for class or indi- 
vidual drill. 

Humorous Sfyle. 
Remark. The varieties of the humorous style 
are numerous. One of the most common, only, 
will be given. 

Remark. Almost any piece may be rendered 
humorous, or ludicrous, by assuming some style in 
its delivery, other than that adapted to it ; for ex- 
ample : apply the ministerial style, somewhat ex- 
aggerated, to any of the preceding examples; again, 
apply the argumentative style of delivery to any 
narrative piece, or vice versa; the pathetic style to 
a denunciatory piece, or vice versa. Let it be tried. 

100. 
Bah ! that 's the third umbrella gone since Christ- 
mas^ What were you to do ? Why, let him -o home 
in the ram, to be sure. I am very certain there was 
nothmg about liim that could spoil Take cold, in- 
deed ! Uo does n't look like one of the .sort to take 
cold. Besides, he'd liave better taken cold than ta- 
ken our umbrella.— Do you hear the rain. Mr. Caudle? 



y 



424 VOCAL CULTUKE. 

1 say, do you hear the rain ? And as 1 am alive, if it 
is n't St. Swithin's day ! Do you hear it against the 
windows ? Nonsense ; you don't impose upon me ; 
you can't be asleep with such a shower as that ! Do 
you hear it, I say ? Oh ! you do hear it ! — Well, that's 
a pretty flood, I think, to last for six weeks ; and no 
stirring all the time out of the house. Pooh ! don't 
think me a fool, Mr. Caudle ; don't insult me ; he re- 
turn the umbrella ! Anybody would think you were 
born yesterday. As if anybody ever did return an 
umbrella! There; do you hear it? Worse and 
wor'.^e. Cats and dogs^ and for six weeks ; and no um- 
breJa. 

T should like to know how the children are to go 
to school to-morrow. They shan't go through such 
weather ; I am determined. No ; they shall stop al 
home and never learn anything, (the blessed crea- 
tures!) sooner than go and get wet! And when they 
gTow up, I wonder who they '11 have to thank for 
knowing nothing ; who, indeed, but their father. 
People who can't feel for their own children ought 
nt^ver to be fathers. 

101. 

Plaintive. 

"Oh! cease not yet to beat, thou vital urn! 
Wait, gushing life, oh, wait my love's return ! 
Hoarse barks the wolf, the vulture screams from far, 
The angel, pity, shuns the w^alks of war ; 
Oh ! spare, ye war hounds, spare their tender age, 
On me, on me," she cried, " exhaust your rage." 
Then, with weak arms her weeping babes caressed, 
A.nd, sighing, hid them in her blood-stained vest. 

102. 

Denunciatory. 

I ask now, Verres, what thou hast to advance 
against this charge ? Will you pretend to deny it ? 
Will you pretend that anything false, that even any- 
thing exaggerated is alleged against you ? Had any 
prince, or any State committed the same outrage 
against the privileges of Roman citizens, should we 
not think we had reason for declaring immediate war 
against them ? What punishment, then, ought to bo 



\ 
• — . I 



VOCAL CULTURE. 425 

inflictetl on a tyrannical and wicked pi'jRtor, who 
■dared, at no greater distance than Sicily, within sight 
of the Italian coast, to put to the infamous deatli of 
crucitixion that inifortunate and innocent (citizen, 
l^ublius Gavins Cosanus, only for having asserted his 
privilege of citizenship ? The unliappy man, arrested 
as he was going to embark for his native country, is 
brought before the wicked prretor. With eyes dart- 
ing fury, and a countenance distorted with cruelty, 
he orders the helpless victim of his rage to be stripped, 
and rods to be brought, and the infamous punish- 
ment to be inflicted. 

103. 
Contemptuous. 

Banished from Rome ! "What's banished but set free? 

"Tried and convicted traitor !" Who says this ? 

Who'll prove it at his peril on my head ? 

Banished ! I thank you for it. It breaks my chain 

1 held some slack allegiance till this hour, 

But now my sword 's my own. Smile on, my lords I 

I scorn to count what feelings, withered hopes, 

Strong provocations, bitter, burning wrongs, 

I have within my heart's core shut up, 

To leave you in your lazy dignities; 

But here I stand and scoft' you ! Here I fling 

Hatred and full defijince in your face ! 

Your Consul 's merciful — for this, all thanks ; 

He dares not touch one hair of Cataline. 

104. 

Ironical. 

"But, Mr. Speaker, we have a right to ta.K Amer- 
ica." Oh, inestimable right ! Oh, wonderful, trans- 
cendent right! the assertion which lias cost this 
country thirteen provinces, six islands, one hundred 
thousand lives, and seventy millions of money. Oh! 
invaluable! right! for the sake of which we have sacri- 
ficed our rank among nations, oiu- imj)ortance abroad, 
and our happiness at home ! Oh, right, more dear to 
us than our existence ! which has already cost us so 



426 



VOCAL CULTURE. 



much, and which seems likely to cost us our all. In- 
fatuated man ! miserable and undone country ! not 
to know that the claim of right, without the power of 
enforcing it, is nugatory, idle. We have a right to 
tax America. This is the profound logic which coni- 
prises the whole chain of his reasoning. 

Not inferior to this was the wisdom of him who re- 
solved to shear the wolf What, shear a wolf ! have 
you consitlered the resistance, the difhculty, the dan- 
ger of the attempt ? No, says the mad man, I have 
considered nothing but the right. Man has a right 
of dominion over the beasts of the forest, and there- 
Pore I will shear the wolf. 

105. 

Angri/. 

Ye dark, designing knaves ! ye murderers ! parri- 
cides ! how dare you tread upon the earth, which has 
drank the blood of slaughtered innocents, shed by 
your hands ; how dare you breathe the air ^which 
wafted to the ear of heaven the groans of those who 
'.'ell a sacrifice to your accursed ambition ! But if the 
laboring earth doth not expand her jaws, if the air you 
breathe is not commissioned to be the minister of 
death, yet hear it and tremble ! The eye of heaven 
penetrates the darkest chambers of the soul ; traces 
the leading clue through all the labyrinths which 
your industrious folly has devised ; and you, however 
you may have screened yoursplves from human eyes, 
"must be arraigned, must lift your hands, red with 
the blood of those whose death you have procured, at 
the tremendous bar of God. 

106. 

PERSONATING STYLE OF DELIVERY. 

Remark. The personation of the passions is 
somewhat different from the delivery of passages 
when really under the influence of such passions, 
as has been supposed in the preceding sections. 
For instance, the personation of Love, presupposes 
that the individual is unde* no restraint from any 



— I 



VOCAL CULTURE. 427 

observer; that lie is alone, or only in the presence 
Df the object of his affection. It is farther taken 
for granted by the audience, that every such per- 
sonation is somewhat over-acted, whereas in the 
former styles of delivery, directed really to the 
audience, no such overaction is tolerated. 

The Personating Sti/le, therefore, may, perhaps, 
more properly be called the Caricaturing style, 
though not designed, in all instances, to provoke 
humor by any means. 

107. 

Love. 

Strange! that one lightly-whispered tone 

Is fai;, far sweeter unto me. 
Than all tlie sounds that kiss the earth 

Or breathe along the sea; 
But, lady, when thy voice I greet. 
Not heavenly music sounds so sweet 

108. 

Fear. 

All! what sound was that? — 

The trap-door fallen? and the spring-lock cautrht— 
_\Vell, have I not the key?— Of course I have! 
Tis m this pocket — No. In this?— No. Then 
I left it at the bottom of tlie ladder- 
Hal 'tis not there. Where then?— Ah mercy, HeaverJ 
1 IS m the lock outside? 
What's to be done? 

Help, help! Will no one hear? ! would that I 
Had not discharged old Simeon!— but he begged 
Each week for wages— would not give me credit 
I'll try my sti-ength upon the door— Despair ! 
I might as soon root up the eternal i-ocks 
As force it open. Am I here a prisoner, 
And no ono in the house?— Horrible fate! 
I sink — I faint beneath tlio bare concoi)tion. 



128 VOCAL CULTURE. 

109. 
TIate. 

How like a fawning publican he looks ! 

I hate him, for he is a Christian; 

But more, for that, in low simplicity, 

He lends out money gratis, and brings down 

The rate of usance with us in Venice. 

If I can catch iiim once upon the hip, 

1 will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him! 

He hates our sacred nation; and he rails, 

Even there where merchants most do congregate 

On me, my bargains, and my well-won thrift, 

Which he calls interest. — Cursed be my tribe, 

If I forgive him. 

110. 
Anger. 

Thou slave ! thou wretch ! thou coward ! 
Thou little valiant, great in villainy! 
Thou ever strong upon the stronger side, 
Thou fortune's champion, thou dost never fight 
But when her humorous lady's hiss is by 
To teach thee safety! Thou art perjured too. 
And soothest up greatness! What a fool art thou, 
A ramping fool, to brag, and stamp, and sweat, 
Upon my party. Thou coldblooded slave, 
Hast thou not spoke like thunder on my side? 
Been sworn my soldier? bidding me depend 
Upon my stars, thy fortune and thy strength? 
And dost thou now fall over to my foes? 
Thou wear a lion's hide? Doff it for shame, 
And hang a calfskin on those recreant limbs. 

111. 

PERSONIFICATION OF NATIONAL PECULIARITIES. 

Irish. 
O Mulligan. 'Pon me sowl, if it 's not yourself that 
I see. 

Sohersense. How now, Pat, what news? 

O M. News! it's meself that's afther telling ye 

that! Ye see I 'm jist like a letther rite out of the 

mail, that's come by tiligraph, walking over the 

thrack like a staim taekittle; and sure as me name 

1 ! 



VOCAL CULTURE. 42!^ 

IS Pat O'Mulligan, that owld boy of a stuudent lias 
made a diskivery in cliiniistry that '11 make a great 
man of hiin all his days. And has not he been of- 
fered a dale of money for it, and a chance to be a 
teacher in the siminary? 

iSoL Why surely, Pat, you must be dreaming, foi 
he was here but a short time since, and he said noth- 
ing about it. 

O'M. The divil a bit am I a dhraming. Tt 's like 
the likes o' him to say niver a word at all, at all. 
Did he iver till how he supported the poor mither of 
his all the time he was afther studying the books.'' 
Shure and was n't he the dacentest boy this side of 
the ould counthry? Sure and it 's meself that 's just 
n-om the post otiice with news. 

112. 

Dutch. 

Mr. Foreman and Toder Jurymens: — Hans peen 
dried for Murder pefore you, and you must pring in 
te verdict; put it must pe 'cordin' to law. 

Der man he killed vash n't killed at all, as vash 
broved; he is in ter jail in Morristown, for sheep 
stealing. Put dat ish no matter; te law say ven ter 
ish a doubt you give him to ter brisoner; put here 
ter ish no doubt. Zo you see ter brisoner is guilty. 

Pesides, he is a great loafer. I have known him 
fifty years, and he has not done any work in all dat 
times; and dere ish no one depending upon him for 
dere living, for he ish no use for nopody. 

I dinks, derefore, Mr. Foreman, he petter pe hung 
next Fourth of July, as der militia is going to drain 
in anoder county, and dere will pe noting going ok 
here. 

113. 

TRANSITION. 

Transition. A sudden change in the manner 
of delivery. 

Explanation. In commencing new paragraphs, 
or in personating several characters in the delivery 
Df one piece, we find the most common and impor- 



t30 VOCAL CULTORE. 

tant ii^e for Transition. Th(;ve are many othei 
forms of transition, however, some of which I shall 
exemplify. 

114. 
TRANSITION IN PARAGRAPHS. 

Remark. Most of our reading books being as 
absurdly divided into verses as is the Bible, this 
kind of transition is precluded. Appropriate ex- 
amples may be found on pages 419 — 20; others 
should be ^ound by the teacher in some book, and 
all the pupils should be trained in this form of 
delivery. 

Rale. The transition from one paragraph to 
another, or from one topic of a discourse to anoth- 
er, generally requires a lower pitch, slower rate, 
and subdued force; also, a slight change in the po- 
sition on the stage. 

115. 

TRANSITION IN STYLE. 

Remark. Dialogue and colloquy aiford the best 
examples of this form of transition ; though narra- 
tive pieces, having conversations interspersed, are 
often more difficult to deliver, requiring also a fre- 
quent transition from the narrative to the colloquial 
style. Examples of both kinds will be given. 

116. 

Transitions in Colloquial Style. 

\_Sir Robert Bramble and Humphrey Dobhins.~\ 

Sir R. I'll tell you what, Humphrey Dobbins, 
there is not a syllable of sense in all you have been 
saying. But I suppose you will maintain there is. 

I Hum. Yes. 

! Sir R. Yes ! is that the way you talk to me, you 

• old bt\ov ? What's my name ? 



VOCAL CULTL'RE. 431 

flum. Kobert Braml)le. 

Sir R. An't I a baronet? Sir Robe, fc Bramble of 
Blackberry Hall, in the county of Kent? 'Tis time 
you should know it, tor you have been my clumsy, 
two-fisted valet these thirty years: can you deny 
that ? 

Hum. Hem ! 

Sir R. Hem ? what do you mean by hem ? Open 
that rusty door of your mouth, and make your uirly 
voice walk out of it. Why don't you answer my 
question ? 

Hum. Because, if I contradict you, I shall tell you 
a lie, and when I agree with you, you are sure to fall 
out. 

Sir R. Humphrey Dobbins, I have been so long 
endeavoring to beat a few brains into your pate, that 
all your hair has tumbled off before my point is 
carried. 

Hum. What then ? Our parson says my head is 
an emblem of both our honors. 

Sir R. Ay ; because honors like your head are 
apt to be empty. 

Hum. No ; but if a servant has grown bald under 
his master's nose, it looks as if there was honesty on 
one side, and regard for it on the other. 

Sir R. Why, to be sure, old Humphrey, you are 
as honest as a — pshaw! the parson means to palaver 
us ; but, to return to my position, I tell you, I don't 
like your flat contradiction. 

Hum. Yes you do. 

Sir R. I tell you I don't. I only love to hear 
men's arguments. I hate their flummery. 

Hum. What do you call flummery ? 

Sir R. Flattery, blockhead ! a dish too often 
sen'ed up by paltry poor men to paltry rich ones. 

117. 
Transition from Narrative to Colloquial. 

\_The Gout}/ Merchant and the, Stranger j 

In Broadstrcot building, (on a winter nigh* / 
Snug by his parlor fire, a gouty wigh*. 
Sat all alone, with one hand rubbing 
His feet, rolled up in fleecy hose, 
With {otherhcW beneath his nose 
19 



43L' VOCAL OULTURlh 

The Public Ledger, in wliose columns grubbing, 

He noted all the sales of hops, 

Ships, shops, and slops ; 
Gums, galls, and groceries ; ginger, gin, 
Tar, tallow, tumeric, turpentine, and tin ; 
When lo ! a decent personage in black, 
Entered and most politely said — 

" Your /oo/man, sir, has gone his nightly track 

To the King's Head, 
And left your door ajar^ which I 
Observed in passing by ; ^^ 

And thought it neighhorhj to give you notice^ 

" Ten thousand thanks ; how very few do get. 
In times of danger, 
Such kind attentions from a stranger f 
Assurdly that fellow's throat is 
Doomed to a final drop at Newgate : 
He knows, too, (the unconscionable elf,) 
That there's no soul at home except my self ^ 

" Indeed^' replied the stranger (looking grave), 

"Then he's a double knave, 
He knows that rogues and thieves by scores 
Nightly beset unguarded doors : 
And see, how easily might one 

Of the^e domestic foes, 

Even beneath your very nose, 
Perform his knavish tricks ; 
Enter your room as I have done, 
Blow out your candles — thus — and thus — 
Pocket your silver candlesticks, 

And— ^walk off— thus ^' — 
So said, so done ; he made no more remark, 

Nor waited for replies, 

But marched off with his prize, 
Leaving the gouty merchant in the dark. 

118. 

TRANSITION IN PARENTHESIS. 

Examples have before been given of ordinary 
parenthesis, — I shall here add one of rather extra- 
ordinary character. It affords the material for an 
excellent drill. 



VOCAL CULTL'RE. 43cJ 

119. 

JSxample of Transition in Parenthesis. 
[O/d to an Infant Son.~\ 

Thou liapj:)}', happy elf! 
(But stop, iirst let mo kiss away that tear,) 

Thou tiny image of myself ! 
(My love, he 's poking peas into kis ear,) 

Thou merry, laughing sprite, 
With spirits, feather light, 

Untouched by sorrow, and unsoiled by sin, 
(My dear, the child is swallowing a pin !) 

Thou little tricksy Puck ! 
With antic toys so funnily bestruck. 

Light as the singing bird that wings the air, 
(The door! the door! he'll tumble down the stair!) 

Tliou darling of thy sire ! 
(Why, Jane, he 11 set his pin-afore afire !) 

Thou imp of mirth and Joy ! 
In love's dear chain so bright a link. 

Thou idol of thy parents; — (Hang the boy! 
There goes my ink !) 

120. 

Transition from Male to Female Voice, 

MisTKR Socrates Snooks, a lord of creation, 
The second time entered the married relation ; 
Xantippe Caloric accepted his hand. 
And thought him the happiest man in the land. 
But scarce had the honeymoon passed o'er his head, 
When, one morning, to Xantippe, Socrates said, 
" I think, for a man of my standing in life. 
This house is too small, as I now have a wife: 
So, as early as possible, carpenter Carey 
Shall be sent for to widen my house and my dairy 
I j " Now, Socrates, dearest," Xantippe replied, 

" I hate to hear everything vulgarly myd; 
Now, whenever you speak of your chatties again. 
Say, our cow house, our barn yard, our pig pen." 
" By your leave, Mrs. Snooks, I will say what I please 
Of my h()u-:es, /ny lands, mi/ gardens, mi/ trees." 
"Say Our,'' Xantippe exclaimed in a rage. 
I won't Mrs. Snooks, though you ask it an age I " 



434 VOCAL CULTURE. 

Oh, ^oman! though only a part of ma.i's ib, 
If the story in Genesis don't tell a fio, 
Should your naughty companion e'er quarrel with you. 
You are certain to prove the best man of the tM o. 
In the following case this was certainly true ; 
For the lovely Xantippe just pulled off her shoe, 
And laying about her, all sides at random, 
The adage was verified — " Nil desperandum." 

Mister Socrates Snooks, after trying in vain, 
To ward off the blows which descended like rain, — 
Concluding that valor's best part was discretion — 
Crept under the bed like a terrified Hessian : 
But the dauntless Xantippe, not one whit afraid. 
Converted the siege into a blockade. 

At last, after reasoning the thing in his pate. 
He concluded 'twas useless to strive against fate; 
And so, like a tortoise protruding his head. 
Said, " My dear, may we come out from under our bed ? 
•'Hah! hah!" she exclaimed. " Mr. Socrates Snooks, 
I perceive you agree to my terms, by your looks: 
Now, Socrates, — hear me,— from this happy hour, 
If you'll only obey me, I'll never look sour." 
Tis said the next Sabbath, ere going to church, 
He chanced for a clean pair of trowsers to search : 
Having found them, he asked, with a few nervous twitches 
'^My dear, may we put on our new Sunday breeches ? " 

[/Vom Kidd's Elo'^ution. 



GESTICULATION 



CLASSES. 

As to Origin, 
Natural, Artificial. 

As to Style, 
Colloquial, Oratorical, Dramatic 

As to Order, 
Principal, Subordinate. 

As to Combination, 
Simple, Complex, Compound. 

As to Use, 

fntroductorv \ '^^ *" Audience, 

^' I Of a Speech, a Paragraph, etc. 

Demonstrative, \ f. ^'^^f^ Persons Things, Extent, 
' ( Jjitnitation, or Antithesis, etc. 
( Of Assent, Denial, 
I Approbation, Disapprobation, 

Significant, ■{ Request, Command, 

Prohibition, Threatening, 
[ Silencing, Directing, etc. 

El , .. \ Earnest, 

*^ ' / Rhetorical. 

!0f Joy. Grief, Love, Hate, Contempt 
Fear, Horror, Despair, Surprise, 
Astonishment, Fright. Pride, Arrogance, 
I Humility. Servility, Shame, Bashfulnc?s, 
iotc. 

fOf Personal Peculiarities, 
Of Niitional Peculiarities. 
Of Feminine or Masculine Peculiarities. 
I Of Cockney Peculiarities. 
(.Of Clownish Peculiarities. 

n «i ,A' ^ i Departure from Individual. 
Concluding, ] j^^[,^.^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ 

r435^ 



u. 



436 



GESTICULATION. 



USE OF THE PARTS. 



Feet, 



Right. 



Left. 



V < 



Positions. 



Changes 

of 
Position. 



fist, 2d, 3d, 4th. 
I Contracted. 
\ Extended. 
I Parallel. 
I. Introverted. 
^ Advancing. 
I Retiring. 

Traversing. 

Starting, 
j Stamping. 



Kicking. 



.Errors— 1, 2, 3. 



''conditions ^ ^''■™' ^'S'"^' ^^eble, Trembling. 

1* / Straight, Bent, Kneeling. 
■w- ,. ( Bending, Kneeling, Shaking 

^ ^°° • \ Staggering. 
Errors— 1, 2, 3. 



Trunk, 



Condition' ■! ^'■®''*' ^'^'*^' Stooping. Leaning, 
"' ( Reclining, Square. Oblique 



Motions, 
^Errors, 



Bending, Stooping, Turning, Strutting, 
\ Reclining, Swaggering, Quivering. 
1, 2, 3. 



Shoulders, 



Positions, 
Motions, 



Thrown back, Drawn forward. 
Elevated, Depressed, Contracted. 
Throwing back, Drawing forward. 
Elevating, Depressing, Shrugging. 



Positions, 



Arris, ' 



f Horizontal, 

fAs to vertical! P.^™^""^' 
direction, 



direction, 
Positions in Combination, 



□ 



^ Upward, 
I Zenith, 
J 1^ Rest. 

■ As to Transverse /Forwards, Obliqao, 
/q.-ronfir^r, 1 Across, Extended, 

1^ Backwards. 
1 Folded, Kimbo, Reposed, 
I Arrogant, 
f Front, 
j Cross, 
■{ Oblique, 

Extended, | 
[ Backward, J 

n . V < Violent, Medium, 

As to force, \ t^, ■, ' t;. ,,' 
' 'Moderate, beeblo. 

Divisions \ Preparatory, Commencing, 
LUivisions, i Stroke, Conclusion. 



As to 
Direc- 
tion, 



{Downward, 
Horizontal, 
Upward, 



Direct, 



) Inwards, 
' Outwards, 
Revolving, 



GESTICULATION. 



437 



Hands, - 



f Position of ) ^ prone, supine, inwards, outwarj?, 
the palm, j ( vertical, forwanls, backwards. 
Position of / ^ "iitural, clinched, extended, index, 
thofingers 1 1 collocted, holding, h .How, 
' ( thumb extended, grasping. 
Position (.1 hands and ) ( applied, clasped, crossed, 
fingers with regard to V h^ folded, inclosed, wringinc. 
each other, I i ■ • • ' 6 <>« 

Positions with , 
regard to other ( 
parts of the i 
body, ' 



I Motions 
[of hands, 



) ( touching, enumerating, 
on the forehead, over the eyes, 
over the chin, over the mouth. 
i j pinching the chin, on the breast, 
[ finger on the lips, on the nose, 
pointing, noting, beckoning, repressing, 
advancing, springing, striking, pressing, 
retracting, rejecting, bending, recoiling, 
shaking, throwing, clinching, collectinc. 



ffcfid ^ Pos'tions, —erect, inclined, elevated, aside, 

* ( Motions,— assenting, denying, shaking, tossing, aside. 

V- i Direction \ ^"^wards, averted, downwards, up\iards 

^y®*'» ^ ( around, on vacancy, fixed. 

• smiling, glistening, winking, frowning, 

Conditions, j weeping, closing, distended, starting, 

staring, wild, phrensied, bloodshot, etc. 



I 



Mouth 



louth I 
and < 
Lips, ( 



Condition, 



Actions, 



closed, gaping, grinning, pouting, 
down in the mouth, 
with st'ff upper lip. 
laughing, hissing, yawning, 
sneering, flouting, hooting, 
chuckling, spitting, whistli~ng. 



QUALITIES. 

Magnificent, Just, Constrained, 

^'^'J' ••. Appropriate. Tame, 

Energetic, Forcible, Feeble 

i^!*"^' ^elect, Monotonous, 

^'"P'«' Adequate, Theatrical. 

J^*'^' ;•; Sufficient, Excessive, 

g^^-«.«f"l' Suitable, Awkwprd 

P*^*^*"^*-'' Well-timed, Ill-timed. 



METHODS OF DRILL 

1. In gestures alone, \ I Simple, 

2. In gestures with voice,) ( C 



Jimple, I / OratnricaL 

/omplex, > V 
'ompound. ) | Dramatic. 



l38 GESTICULATION. 



DEFINITEONb, REMARKS AND EXPLANATIONS. 

Remark I. Most of the text books oa Elocution, virtually 
ignore the subject of Gesticulation, by sa^in;^ that it cannot be 
taught bj pictures; or by referring it to t(?achers, who, for the 
most part, are unacquainted even with its nomenclature. 

Remark 2. Having given an outline of Gesticulation, em- 
bracing its nomenclature, I shall have room only for the defi- 
nitions of such terms and explanations of such parts of it as 
seem most to require them. 

Remark 3. Almost any teacher, by going over this classifi- 
cation and familiarizing himself with its terms and details, 
and by practicing them in his private room, will be able to in- 
troduce the following drills on Gesture into liis school with 
good effect. They can take the place of other gymnastic 
exercises during recesses or intermissions. 

Remark 4. An abridged notation may be secured by using 
capital initial letters for the positions and motions of the 
head, eyes, mouth, also for the lower extremeties; and small 
initial letters for the motions, positions, and conditions of all 
other parts. In case the initial letters are alike in two terms, 
the first two letters must be used ; and when the first two are 
alike, the first three can be used. The letter added to an initial 
capital should be small. This notation is convenient in guid- 
ing drills; also, for noting the errors or defects of pupils un- 
der drill in order for efficient criticism. 

Remmk 5, All that has been gained by the drill in the 
Management of the Person, as treated of on pages 357 — 365, 
will be valuable as introductory to Drills in Gesticulation. 

Gesticulation. See page 55, section 7. 

CLASSES. 

Natural GEsricuLATiox. See page 43, section 6. 
Artificial Gesticulation. See page 44, section 6. 
Colloquial Gesture. That which occurs in ordinary i30i> 
v'prsation. 



GESTICULATION. 43ll 

Explanation. This often consists in motions of the head 
only ; not, uufrequently, however, the motions of the hand 
and forearm are used; seldom the motions of the arm. 

Uratouical Gesture. That used in the pulpit, and iu 
legislative assemblies. 

Explanation. This consists of the positions and motions 
of all parts of the system, except such attitudes and highly 
wrought displays, as are necessary to exhibit the stronger 
emotions, as of fright, horror, despair, etc. It forbids the 
use of the forearm, by itself, entirely. 

Dramatic Gesture. That which is suitable for the drama 
or theater. 

Explanation. It includes all oratorical gesture ; also, the 
appropriate portrayal of the strongest passions and emotions 
of the soul. 

Simple Gesture. That made b} one member or equally 
?y a pair of members, when designed to give expression to 
>nly one gush of thought or feeling. 

Complex Gesture. That which involves the motions of 
two or more members, a part of which motions are subordi- 
nate to others. 

Compound Gesture. Gesture continued from one thought 
or feeling to another, with, or without change. 

Pri.vcipal Gesture. That which in a complex gesture is 
the most prominent. 

Introductory Gesture. That which is designed to 
accompany the introduction of a speaker to an audience, or 
to prepare the minds of an audience for a new speech or a new 
paragraph. 

Explanation. The bow is commonly addressed to the 
audience, when a speaker is introliux'd l)otli by the speaker 
And the person introducing him ; also, a downward oblique 
outward gesture with the right hand, by the latter. 

Remark. For want of room, I shall be compelled to omit 
the definitioc* and explanations of other classes of Gesture. 
They will, for the most part, explain themselves to xnj intel 
I' gent teacher. 
19* 



4 40 



GESTICULATION. 



POSITIONS AND MOTIONS 01 THE FEET. 

1st Position. Body on the left foot, right foot forwitid^ 
head erect, hands down. 

2d Position. Body forward on the right foot; the left foot 
behind, resting on the toe. 

2d Position. Body on the right foot, the left in front. 

iTH Position. Body on the left foot, the right behind, 
resting on the toe. 

Contracted. Feet nearly touching. 

Extended. Feet far apart. 

Parallel. Both feet in the same direction. 

Introverted. Feet with toes turned inward. 

Remark. The motions of the feet will explain them- 
selves; and for want of room, I shall leave the Outline on 
the Trunk and Shoulders for the ingenuity of the teacher and 
pupil to master. 

POSITIONS OF THE ARM. 

Horizontal. Extended in a straight line from the shoul- 
der, neither elevated nor depressed. 

Downward. Depressed 45° from the horizontal position. 

Upward. Elevated 45° from the horizontal position. 

Zenith. Pointing vertically upward. 

Rest. Hanging by the force of gravity only. 

Forward. Extending in a straight line, neither inclining 
to right or left. 

Oblique. The right arm inclined 45° towards tiie left; the 
left arm extended 45° towards the right. 

Both arms are in the right oblique position, when 
inclined 45° towards the right; and in the left oblique 
position, when inclined 45° towards the left. 

Across. The right arm diiected towards the left, or the 
left arm directed towards the right, in contact with the 
breast. 

Extended. Directed outward, 90° from forward. 

Backward. Making an obtuse angle with forward. 






r 



1 




GESTICULATION. 441 


1 


FOLDBD. 


Wrapped across the breast, and enclosing rach 




Other. 






KiMBO. 


With the elbow extended, and the haiul placed on 




the hip. 







Arroqan'i. The elbows in contact with the person, and 
the thumbs in the arm-holes of the vest. 

Reposed. With one hand covering the other over the 
etomach. A feminine position. 

Remark. Outline of Motions must explain itself. It gives 
at least 96 different gestures with each arm, without inclu- 
ding any changes of the hand or fingers, 

DIVISIONS OP GESTURE WITH THE UPPER EX- 
TREMITY. 

Preparation. This consists in such elevation of the hand 
and arm from the position of Rest as is necessary to perforn 
the gesture. 

Commencement. The first part of the motion, which is 
given with less force than the Stroke. 

Stroke. Climax or telling point of lu*-. gesture wticii 
must be given with greater energy t.har mat ol liic inotioa 
preceding it. 

Conclusion. The falling bacK or tue uand and arrc u tiiC 
state of Rest. 

POSITIONS OF TUE BAND. 

Prone. Palm downward. 

Supine. Palm upward. 

.Inward. Palm toward the Dody 

Outward. Palm away from the Dody 

Vertical. Pointing directly upward. 

Forward. Palm turned forward, the arm ocing at rest^ 
or in one of the extended or backward positions. 

Backward. Palm turned backward, the arm being at niet, 
or in one of the extended or backward positions. 

DISPOSITION OF THE FINGERS. 
Natural The fingers all a little bent in towards the 
palm, and the extremity of the thumb a little bent outward; 
thf» same arra,ngement as when offered for shaking hands. 



442 GESTICULATION. 

Cliscbbd The fingers firmly closed, and thumb pressing 
over them. 

BIxTBND&D. The fingers separated from each other accord- 
ing to the excit'jment of the speaker. 

JNDEX. The tore finger extended, loa ottier fingers being 
closed. 

Collected. The ends of tne fcingers inclined towards, or 
touching the end of the tdumo. 

Holding. Tbe fore and middle fingers pressed at their 
middle against ibe tnumb, the othe" fingers being more or 
less contracted 

Hollow. The hand supine, and the fingers curved with- 
cut touching. 

Thumb. The fingers closed, the thumb being used as an 
index. 

COMBINED POSITION OP THE HANDS. 

Applied. The palms, fingers and thumbs mutually 
pressed against each other. 

Clasped. All tbe fingers inserted between each other, 
and closed, as far as possible. 

Folded. The fingers of the right hand laid between the 
thumb and forefinger of the left, the right thumb crossing 
the left. 

Crossed. One hand laid on tbe breast and the other laid 
over it. 

Inclosed. One hand so laid within the other that one 
thumb lies over the other. 

GESTURES WITH HAND AND ARM. 

Pointing, indicating the direction o.^'any object. 

Noting. The right band as an index descending gently 
and repeatedly; often towards the palm of the other hand, 
hollow. 

Repelling The arms first retracted, being pushed for- 
ward with the hand vertical ?iXi6. outward. 

Waving. The fingers first downward, being raised quickly 
by extending the joints of the hands and arms. 



( I 



UKSTICULATION. 443 

Beckomnc. The hand inward, and brought repeatedly 
towards the breast. 

Rei'Ressino. The hand outioard, being carried repeatedly 
forward. It is the opposite of the preceding. 

AuvAXCixu. The hand first moved downward and back- 
ward, then uigiilarly forward io the horizontal; a step being 
made forward to aid in the gesture. 

Springing. The hand having nearly arrived at its limit 
in a gesture, being suddenly thrown forward making the 
stroke of the gesture. This must be simultaneous with the, 
enunciation of the .accented syllable in the empnatic word. 

Striking. The arm being thrown towards the person ad- 
dressed, as it were, by the force of the gesture. 

Threatening. The hand suddenly clinched, is raised into 
a posture of offence. 

Pressing. The hand already laid on some part, the elbow 
being raised and the fingers pressed more forcibly on that 
part, denoting greater violence of the emotion. 

Retracting. Withdrawing the arm preparatory to ges- 
ture. 

Rejecting. Pushing the hand forward towaid an object, 
lit the same time averting the face. 

METHOD OF DRILL WITHOUT \OICE. 

Remark 1. A few minutes spent in these or similar drills 
of gesticulation, every day, in connection with reading les- 
sons, or at recesses or intermissions, will be sufficient to give 
propriety, force and beauty to the expression of gesture, where 
otherwise there is the greatest backwardness, or the most re- 
pulsive awkwardness in gesticulation. 

Remark 2. It is not to be supposed that these drills a^ 
laid down here are the only drills by which a class ought to 
be trained. They are only given as specimens for the coin' 
viencement of ihQ training in Oratorical Gesticulation; for want 
of room, drills in Dramatic Gesture are omitted. 

Remark 3. The constrained and feeble action of Collo- 
quial Gesticulation calls for no training otherwise than to 
break it up in Reading, Declamation and Oratory 



444 GESTICULATION 

ORATORICAL GESTICULATION^. 

DIRECTIONS TO THE TEACHER. 

Direction 1. Arrange the members of the c'ass on the 
floor, at such distances that their hands cannot meet. Let 
them stand as many as possible so that their feet can be seen. 

Direction 2. Having cleared off your table, take your 
stand on it, in ordei that your entire figure may be seen by 
every pupil in the class. 

Direction 3. Illustrate every new position and motion to 
the class by examples, cautioning them against the various 
awkward errors to which they will be liable, illustrating 
such errors also by example. 

Direction 4. Let the class take the same position and go 
through with the same evolutions, many times, in concert 
with yourself; then by themselves in compliance with your 
directions, while your attention is given to the faults of indi- 
viduals, so that you can correct them in the repetition of the 
exercise. If simply describing the error does not enable the 
pupil to correct it, you will illustrate it, or caricature it, till 
he will be glad to abandon it. 

Direction 5. When the class shall have become familiar 
with the meaning of the words used describing positions and 
motions, either by practice in the drills or by study of the 
Outline and Definitions, you can introduce a random exer- 
cise ; firstly, requiring the class to follow your lead as closely 
as possible; secondly, requiring them to comply with your 
random verbal directions. 

teacher's directions to pupils. 

Explanation 1. Words in italics in the following direc- 
tions are technical ; they will be found in the Outline on 
Gesticulation in their proper places, and their definitions are 
given so far as has been thought necessary among the Defini- 
tions following the Outline. 

Explanation 2. The "word Position, when commencing 
with a capital, \sill refei to the position of the feet; and the 
word Best, to the hands and arms. 



«£STICULATION. 445 

iNTRODUCTORV AND CONCLUDING GESTURE. 

Series I. Take your places. First Position Second Po- 
sition with the bow, First Position, Second Position wiili 
the Introductory. (^Explanation. This is given by raising 
the right hand from Rest, gracefully and in the natural posi- 
lion, as if to shake hands. It is used to introduce a speech 
or a new paragraph.) First Position with Rest. Third Po- 
sition, Fourth Position, and Introductory with the left hand. 
Third Position and Rest, concluding bow. First Position, 
with a step backward. 

Scries 2. First Position. Second Position with a bow 
and sweep of the right hand towards the right. Second Po- 
sition with a bow^ and sweep of the left hand towards the 
left. First Position, Introductory and Second Position. First 
Position and sweeping bow, retiring one or two steps to the 
First Position. 

POSITIONS AND MOTIONS OF THE HANDS AND ARMS. 

Series 1. First Position, arras horizontal forward, hands 
natural, prone, supine, forward, clinched. Rest. 

Hands natural, arms forward, with second Position; down- 
ward, horizontal, upward, zenith. Rest. 

Right hand index, arm north. Right arm Rest, with the 
left hand index, arm south. Left arm Rest, with the right 
hand index, arm east; Right arm Rest, with the left hand 
index, arm west, Rest. With the right index, point to me, 
to the clock, to the zenith, etc. 

Remark. These gestures must be given with vivacity, in 
graceful curves, rather than with awkward, angular motions, 
also with the spring, making the stroke. 

First Position, arms horizontal oblique, with hands supine, 
arms folded, kimbo, horizontal extended with hand forward, 
arras arrogant, with trunk swaggering; hands applied; arma 
upward, extended, with hands natural; hands wringing. Rest. 

Remark to the Teacher. By studying thti Outline and Defi- 
uitions you will be able to carry on such exercises, varying 
them, a- d bringing in new positions, motions, and combinii- 



446 GESTICULATION. 

tions, until your class shall become familiar with the nom- 
euclature of Gesticulation, and are able to gesticulate with 
freedom, grace and effect. 

DRILL IN GESTICULATION WITH VOICE. 

Several authors on Gesticulation have given a variety nf 
pieces with the appropriate gestures of all the different parts 
of the system marked, either with figures or letters. I have 
found it difficult to make any good use of either kind of no- 
tation, without devoting more time to learn them than a 
teacher can well afford, who is fully occupied in teaching 
the various branches of a common school. Neither have I 
found the cuts representing the various positions of any real 
service; and if they were, it would amount to little, as motions 
cannot be represented, which of course are the most difficult 
to acquire and to teach. The method of drill which I have 
found most serviceable is the declamation of short pieces, in 
concert, with the pupils, after they have had opportunity to 
nemorize them: giving one or two such pieces at each read- 
ing lesson, to be memorized for recital and practice in ges- 
ticulation, a few moments, at the next reading exercise. 

I shall leave it to the judgment and taste of the trainer tc 
select examples from these following, or from other books, 
and to give appropriate gestures in their delivery. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL IN GESTICULATION AND 
VOCAL DELIVERY. 

Demonstrative Gesture. 

Though you, though all the world, though an angel 
from heaven were to declare the truth of it, I could 
not believe it. 

From North to South, from East to West, in all its 
wide extent, our country calls on heaven for blessings 
this day. Oh that they may descend without meas- 
ure, and sweep crime and oppression from all the 
land 

Are not you, sir, is not your honorable colleague 
sitting near you, are you not both the proscribed and 
predestined objects of punishment and of vengeance? 

I 



GESTICULATION. 447 

Is there not rain enough in the sA^eet heavens to 
(vash this crimson hand as white as snow? 

thou that rollost above, round as the shield of 
my fathers! Whence are thy beams, Sun, thy 
everListing hght? Thou comest forth in thy awful 
beauty; the stars hide themselves in the sky, the 
moon cold and pale sinks in the western wave. But 
thou, thyself movest alone; who can be a companion 
of thy course? 

Know ye this, my friends, that he who reigneth 
in Heaven, whose footstool is the solid globe, an-Tio al 
a glance takcth in all things, whose essence fiUeth all 
?-pace, the immensity of the universe, regardeth us, 
the creatures of his wisdom and his bounty, not as 
objects to be cast away or repelled from his presence 
but as beings to whom his heart is ever open, his 
hand ever extended. lie will take us to his arms, as 
a mother taketh her child! — [From Fitzgerald's Exhi- 
''ition Speaker. 

Ye crags and peaks, I 'm with you once again 

1 hold to you the hands you first beheld 
To show they still are free. Methinks 
I hear a spirit in your echoes answer me 
And bid your tenant welcome to his home 
Again 1 sacred forms, how proud you look! 
How high you lift your heads into the sky! 
How huge you are ! how mighty and how free ! 
Ye are things that tower, that shine — whose smile 
Makes glad, whose frown is terrible, whose forms, 
Eobed or unrobed, do all the impress wear 
Of awe divine. Ye guards of liberty, 
I "m with you once again. I call to you 
With all my voice. I hold my hands to you 
To show tiioy still are free. 1 rush to you 
.Va though I coukl embrace you ! 

Demonstrat'ice^ Emphatic., Significant and 
, Impassioned Gesture. 

I IIOHENLIXDEV. 

On Linden, when the sun was low, 
All bloodless lay the untrodd'n snow, 
And dark as winter was the How 
( )f Iscr rolling i'a])idly. 



_,J 



448 GESTICULATION. 

But Linden saw another sight, 
When the drum beat at dead of niglif,, 
Commanding fires of death to light 
The darkness of her scenery. 

By torch and trumpet fast array' d, 
Each horseman drew his battle blade; 
And furious every charger neigh'd, 
To join the dreadful revelry. 

Then shook the hills with thunder riv'n^ 
Then rush'd the steeds to battle driv'n, 
And louder than the bolts of heav'n, 
Far fla.shed the red artillery. 

And redder yet those fires shall glow 
On Linden's hills of bloodstained snow; 
And darker yet, shall be the flow 
Of Iser rolling rapidly, 

'Tis morn — but scarce yon lurid sun 
Can pierce the war clouds, rolling dun, 
Where furious Frank, and fiery Hun 
Shout in their sulph'rous canopy. 

The combat deepens — On, ye brave, 
Who rush to glory, or the grave! 
Wave, Munich, all thy banners wave! 
And charge with all thy chivalry! 

Few, few shall part where many meet! 
The snow shall be* their winding sheet, 
And every turf beneath their feel. 
8hall be a soldier's sepulchre. 

THE Seminole's defiance. 

I've scared ye in the city, 

I scalped ye on the plains; 
Go, count your chosen, where they fell 

Beneath my leaden rain ! 
I 8Cor)i your proffered treaty I 

The pale-face 1 defy ! 
Revenge is stamped upon my spear> 

And blood my battle cry. 

V^e 've trailed me through the IbreBt, 
Ye 've tracked mo o'er the stream; 



\ 

■ —. I 



I I 



GESTICULATION. 449 

' And struggling througli the everglades, 
Your bristling bayonets gleam; 

But I stand as should the warrior, 
With his rifle and his spear; 

The scalp of vengeance still is red, 
And warns ye — Come not here! 

I loathe ye in my bosom, 

I scorn ye with mine eye, 
And I '11 taunt ye with my latest breath. 

And fight ye till I die! 
T ne'er will ask ye quarter, 

And 1 ne'er will be your slave; 
But I '11 swim the sea of slaughter, 

Till I sink beneath its wave! 



THE MISER. 

The wind was high — the window shakes; 
With sudden start ^he miser wakes! 
Along the silent room he stalks; 
Looks back, and trembles as he walksl 
Each lock, and every bolt he tries, 
In every creek, and corner pries; 
Then opes his chest with treasure stor'd, 
And stands in rapture o'er his hoaixi. 
But now with sudden qualms po.ssess'd. 
He wrings his hands, and beats his breast^ 
By conscience stung, he wildly stares; 
And thus his guilty soul declares: 
Had the deep earth her stores confined, 
This heart had known sweet peace of mind. 
But virtue's sold ! Good gods! what price 
Can recompense the pangs of vice? 
Oh, bane of good ! seducing cheat, 
Can man, weak man, thy power defeat? 
Gold banisli'd Iionor from the mind. 
And only left the name behind; 
Gold sowed the world with every ill; 
Gold taught the murd'rers sword to kill; 
'T was gold instructed coward hearts 
In ti'cach'ry's more pernicious arts. 
Who can recount the mischiefs o'er? 
Virtue resides on earth no mora 



450 GESTICULATION. 



ELIZA. 

Now stood Eliza on the wood-crowned height, 
Oev Minden's plain spectatress of the fight. 
Soucrht with bold eye, amid the bloody strife, 
Her dearer self, the partner of her life ; 
From hill to hill the rushing host pursued, 
And viewed his banner, or believed she viewed. 
Pleased with the distant roar, with quicker tread, 
Fast by her hand one lisping boy she led; 
And one fair girl, amid the loud alarm. 
Slept on her kerchief, cradled by her arm; 
While around her brows bright beams of honor dart 
And love's warm eddies circle round her heart. 
Near and more near the intrepid beauty press'd, 
Saw through the driving smoke his dancing crest; 
Saw on his helm, her virgin hands inwove. 
Bright stars of gold, and m3^stic knots of love; 
Heard the exulting shout, " They run, they run! 
Great heav'n," she cried, "he's safe! the battle's won!" 
\ oad now hisses through the airy tides, 
(Some fury winged it, and some demon guides!) 
Parts the fine locks her graceful head that deck, 
Wounds her fair ear and sinks into her neck; 
The red stream issuing from her azure veins, 
Dyes her white veil, her ivory bosom stains. 
"Ah me!" she cried, and sinking on the ground, 
Kiss'd her dear babes, regardless of the wound; 
" Oh! cease not to beat, thou vital urn! 
Wait, gushing, oh, wait my love's return!" 
Hoarse barks the wolf, the vulture screams from far, 
The angel. Pity, shuns the ranks of war ! 
" Oh ! spare, ye war-hounds, spare their tender age; 
On me, on me," she cried, " exhaust your rage!" 
Then with weak arms her weeping babes caressed, 
And, sighing, hid them in her bloodstained vest. 
From tent to tent the impatient warrior flies, 
Fear in his heart, and frenzy in his eyes; 
Eliza's name along the camp he calls, — 
" Eliza'" echoes through the canvas walls. [tread. 

Quick through the murmuring gloom his footsteps 
O'er groaning heaps., the dying and the dead; 
Vault o'er the plain, and in the tangled wood 
Lo ! dead Eliza, weltering in her blood. 
Soon hears his listening son the welcome sounds, 



I 
1 ! 



GESTICULATION. 451 

With open ai'iiis and sparkling eyes he bounds; 
"Speak low,"' he cries, and gives his little hand, 
"Eliza sleeps upon the dew cold sand:" 
Poor weeping babe, with bloody fingers press'd 
And tried with pouting lips, her milkless breast, 
"Alas we botli with cold and hunger quake — 
Why do you weep? Mamma will soon awake." — 
"She'll wake no more!" the hapless mourner cried, 
Upturn d his eyes, and clasped his hand and sigh'd; 
Stretched on the ground awhile entranced he lay, 
And pressed warm kisses on the lifeless clay: 
And then upsprung, with Avild convulsive start, 
And all the father kindled in his heart. 
"Oh, heavens," he cried, "my first rash vow forgive; 
These bind to earth, for these I pray to live!" 
Round his cliill babes he wrapt his crimson vest, 
And clasped them, sobbing, to his aching breast. 

ROLLA TO HIS SOLDIERS. 

They follow an adventurer whom they fear, and 
obey a power which they hate. We serve a monarch 
whom we love, a God whom we adore ! Whene er 
they move in anger, desolation tracks their progress; 
whene'er they pause in amity, affliction mourns their 
friendship! — They boast they come but to enlarge 
our minds, and free us from the yoke of error. Yes; 
they will give enlightened freedom to our minds, 
who are themselves the slaves of passion, avarice and 
pride! They offer us their protection. Yes; such 
protection as vultures give to lambs, — covering and 
devouring them! They call on us to barter all the 
good we have inherited and proved, for the desperate 
chance of something better which they promise. Be 
our plain answer this: — The throne we honor is the 
people's choice: the laws we reverence are our brave 
forefather's legacy; the faith we follow teaches us to 
live in peace with all mankind, and die with hopes 
of bliss beyond the grave! 

Rir.NZI TO THE ROMANS. 

Friends! 
f came not here to talk. Ye know too well 
The story of our thraldom. We are slaves! 
The bright sun rises to his course, and lights 
\ race ol" slaves! He sets, and his last beam 



452 GESTICULATION. 

Falls on a slave! not such as, swept along 

By thcfull tide of power, the conqueror leads 

To glory and undying fame, — 

But base, ignoble slaves! — slaves to a horde 

Of petty tyrants, feudal despots; lords, 

Rich in some dozen paltry villages; 

Strong in some hundred spearmen; only great 

In that strange spell, a name! Each hour, dark fraud 

Or open rapine, or protected murder. 

Cry out against them. But this very day 

An honest man, my neighbor, — there he stands — 

Was struck — struck like a dog, by one who wore 

The badge of Ursini! because, forsooth, 

He tossed not high the ready cap in air, 

Nor lifted up his voice in servile shouts. 

At sight of that great ruthan. Be we men 

And suffer such dishonor? Men, and wash not 

The stain aw^ay in blood? Such shames are common. 

I have known deeper wrongs. I that sj)eak to ye — 

I had a brother once, a gracious boy. 

Full of all gentleness, of calmest hope. 

Of sweet and quiet joy. There was the look 

Of heaven on his face, which limners give 

To the belov'd disciple. How I loved 

That gracious boy! Younger by fifteen years, 

Brother at once and son! He left my side, 

A summer bloom on his fair cheeks — a smile 

Parting his innocent lips. In one short hour 

The pretty, harmless boy was slain. I saw 

The corpse, the mangled corpse, and then I [slaves! 

Cried for vengeance! Rouse, ye Romans! Rouse ye 

Have ye brave sons? Look in the next fierce brawl 

To see them die. Have ye fair daughters? Look 

To see them live, torn from your arms, distained. 

Dishonored; and if ye dare call for justice 

Be answered by the lash! Yet this is Rome, 

That sat on her seven hills, and from her throne 

Of beauty ruled the w^orld! Yet, we are Romans 

Why, in that elder day, to be a Roman 

Was greater than to be a king. And once again— 

Hear me, ye walls, that echoed to the tread 

Of either Brutus — once again T swear 

The Eternal City shall be free. 



co:n te:n ts. 

PART f. CLASSIFICATION OF KNOWLEDGE. 

Pagk 

[NrRODUCTION, 7 — 11 

Outline of Knowlkih;k, .. 11 — 12 

Outlines cp Departments and Branches of 

Literature, 11; Sciences, 12; Arts, 13, 11 — 13 

Definitions, for Outlines of Knowledge, \4--'J7 

Definitions of Departments of Literature, 15 ; 
of Sciences. 15; of Arts, 16; of Branches of 
Phrenics, 10; Theetics, 17; Chronics, 18; 
Epistatics. 19; Geotics, 20; Therapeutics, 21; 
Mathematics, 22; Physics, 23; Technics 24; 
Grapliics, 25; Polemics, 20; Cosmic?, 2G — 27, 

Method of using the Outline of Knowledge, 27 — 28 

Schemes of Mental Training, 29 — 3? 

PART II. ORTHOEPY AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Introduction 35 — 38 

General Outline of Grammar, 31; 

TiANGUAGE, 40 4t) 

Definitions, p]xplanations, and Remarks for 

Outline of Grammar, 43 — 46 

ORTHOEPY. 

Outline of Orthoepy. Definitions, etc., 51 — 57 

Methods OF Teaching Pronunciation, 51 — 57 

Chart No. 1. Physiological Classification of 
the Articulate Sounds, with Phonotypic, Web- 

sterian, and Worcesterian Notation, 52 — 53 

Chart No. 2. Cognates of Articulate Sounds, 54 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Chart No. 3. Orthographic Arrangement of 

Letters and Sounds, 58 — 59 

Outline of Orthography. Definitions, etc., CO — G9 

FoR.M of Orthographic Parsing, 02 

Definitions for Outlines of Ortnography 63 — 09 

Phonetic Method of Teaching the Alpharet, 70 — 75 

Transition to Romanic Reading, 76 — 80 

Method of Teaching Spelling to Secondary Classes, 81 — 84 

Method of Teaching Spelling to Advanced Chisses, 85—91 

EiKRCi.sES in Orthographic Parsing, 92 — 96 

(i53) 



454 CONTENTb. 

PART HI. GRAMMAR. 

Introduction, 99 — 103 

Method of Teaching Primary Classes, 104 — 142 

Method of Teaching Advanced Classes, 143 — 176 

Outline of Orthogeny, 149 

Outline of the Noun. Definitions, etc., 150 — 156 

Outline of the Verb. Definitions, ete , 157 — 161 

Outline op the Pronoun. Definitions, etc., .... 162 — 165 

Outline of Syntax. Remarks, etc., 165 — 166 

Outline of Analysis. Definitions, etc., 167 — 176 

Methods of Oral Analj-sis, I'^'l 

Methods of Written Analysis, 173 — 17*1 

Abridgement, 175 — 176 

PART IV. GEOGRAPHY. 

Introduction, 179 — 183 

Method of Teaching Primary Classes, 184 — 195 

Method of Teaching Secondary Classes, 196 — 214 

Topic List fbr Natural Divisions of Land, 207 

Topic List for Natural Divisions of Water, 209 

General Directions for the Study of Political 

Divisions, 211 — 214 

Method of Teaching Advanced Classes, 215 — 236 

Outline of Mathematical Geography, 217 — 218 

Outline of Physical Geography, 218 — 223 

Outline of Phenomenal Geography, 224 — 229 

Outline of Political Geography,...^ -229—234 

Topic List for Descriptive Geography, 235 

Use of Apparatus, 237 — 264 

The Globe, 237 

Uses of the Globe, 238 — 248 

Tellurian, 249 

Uses of the Tellurian, 249 — 264 

PART V. ARITHMETIC. 

Introduction, 267 — 271 

Methods of Teaching Mental Arithmetic 272 — 282 

Methods of Teaching Written Arithmetic, 283 — 290 

Theoretical Arithmetic, £91 — 344 

Outline of Arithmetic. Definitions, etc., 291 — 297 

Outline of Notation. Definitions, etc., 297 — 304 

Outline op Numeration. Definitions, etc., 305 — 306 

Topic List for Fundamental Rules, 306 

Discussion of Addition, 307 — 313 

Outline of Compound Numbers, 314 

Outline OF Common Fractions. Definitions, etc., 315 — 329 

Outline of Decimal Fraottons. Definitions, etc., 329- -332 



CONTENTS. 455 

OuTLiNR OP Ratio. Definitions, etc., ;»'>4 — 3'A^ 

OurriNE OF Proportio.v. Definitions, etc., 530 — 338 

UUTLfNK OF Pkhcen'tage, 339 

OuTLiXK OF Gai.v and Loss, 339 

Outline of Commissio.v, 339 

Outline op Brokerage, 339 

Outline of Stock, 339 

Outline of IxsuuA.vnE, 340 

Outline of Taxes 340 

Outline of Interest MO — 341 

Outline of Banking, 34J 

Outline op Exchange, 343 

Outline op Involution, 343 

Outline of Evolution, 343 

Outline op Arithmetical Progression, 344 

Outline op Geometrical Progression, 344 

PART VI. ELOCUTION. 

Introduction, ^47— 3G4 j 

Outline op Elocution. Delinilions, etc., 35o I 

Outline op Departments. Definitions, etc., 356 

(Outline op .Management op Person. Direc- 
tions, etc., 557 — 3GI ' 

Method of Drilling a Class on Management of 

Person. Fteinarks and Directions, 301 3G3 

Outline of Vocal Culture. Definitions, etc.,... 364 — 3S9 
Drill in Breathing, 367; Drill in Articulation, 
369; Pitch, 369 ; Drill on Pitch, 370; Force, 
373; Drill on Force, 373; Laughing Exercise, 
377; Rate, 378; Inflections, 379 ; Method of 
Drill in Rising Inflections, 380 ; Rising Slide 
—Bend, 381—382; Falling Inflections, 383; 
Partial Close,— Perfect Close, 384; Series, 386; 
Method of Drill in all the Simple Inflections 
Combined, 388 ; Compound Inflections, 389. 

lluLEs FOR Inflections, 39 ^ — 40;? 

Rule i. Examples for Drill, 395; Exception 1, 
396; Exception 2, 397; Exception 3, 397, 
Rule ii. Examples for Drill, 398; Exception, 
399. Rule hi. Notes 1, 2, Examples fm Drill, 
400—401 ; E.xceptions 1, 2, 3, 401. Rule iv. 
Notes 1, 2, 403. Rule v. Notes 1, 2, 3, 404, 
— 405; Rule vi, 406; Rule vii, 406; Hule vhi, 
407; Rule ix, 408 ; Rule x, 408; Mc-lli<»d (..f 
Drill in Poetry, 408. 

EnrHASis, 409 — 416 

ClhT^ses of Emphasis, 409; Methods of (iiviug 
20 



I ■ 



456 CONTENTS. 

Emphasis, 409 ; Methods of Drill in Classes of 
Emphasis, 410; Ordinary Emphasis, 411; An- 
tithetic Emphasis, 411 ; Cumulative Emphasis, 
412; Deferred Emi^hasis, 412; Conventional 
Emphasis, 413; Examples for Drill in Methods 
of Emphasis, 413; Depression of Pitch and 
Diminution of Force, 413; Depression of Pitch 
and Increase of Force, 413 ; Whisper, 414; In- 
crease or Diminution of Rate, 414; Change of 
Aceent, 414; Emphatic Sweep, 414; Emphatic 
Pause, 414—415. 

Tone, 415—416 

Examples for Drill in Impure Tone, Nasal, 
Guttural, Aspirated, Tremulous, 41G. 

Styles of Delivery, 41G — 428 

Method of Drill in Styles of Delivery, 417; Ex- 
amples fer Drill in Narrative 418 ; Didactic 
410; Persuasive, 419; Argumentative, 420 
Colloquial, 421; Humorous, 423; Plaintive, 
424 ; Denunciatory, 424 ; Contemptuous, 425 ; 
Ironical, 425; Angry, 426; Personating Styles, 
42G— 429; Love, 427; Fear, 427; Hate, 428; 
Anger, 428; Irish, 428; Dutch, 429. 

TUANSITION, 429—434 

Transition in Paragraph, 430 ; in Style, 430 — 
432; in Parenthesis, 432; from Male to Female 
Voice, 433 — 434. 

GESTICULATION. 

Outline ok Gesticulation, 435—437 

Definitions, Remarks and Explanations, 438 

Positions and Motions of the Feet, 44C 

Positions of the Arm, 440 

Divisions of Gesture with Upper Extix'uiity,... 441 

Positions of the Hand, 441 

Disposition of the Fingers, 441 

Coml)ined Position of the Hands, 44., 

^ Gestures with Hand and Arm, 442 

'. Met^iod of Drill without Voice, 443 

j Oratorical Gesticulation, 444 

j Directions to the Teacher, 441 

Teacher's Directions to Pupils, 44-4 

Introductory and Concluding Gesture, 445 

Positions and Motions of the Hands and Arms, 445 

Drill in Gesticulation with Voice, 446 

Examples for Drill in Gesticulation and \'ocal 

Delivery, 44-j— 452 



I 
1 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



THE NATIONAL READERS. 



No. I. 

No. 2. 
No. 3. 
No. 4. 
No. 5. 
No. 6. 



By PARKEil and WATSON. 

National Primer .... 
National First Reader . . 
National Second Reader . 
National Third Reader 
National Fourth Reader . 
National Fifth Reader . . 



National Elementary Speller 
National Pronouncing Speller 



64- pp. 16 



128 *^ 


W 


224. •• 


W 


288 " 


12'' 


432 " 


12° 


600 " 


12° 


160 jyp. 


16° 


188 •• 


12 "" 



, . , 160 




16° 


. , , 240 




16° 


. . , 264 




12° 


, . . 336 




12° 


. , . 474 




12° 



THE INDEPENDENT READERS. 

By J. MADISON WATSON. 

The Independent First (prinU) Reader . 80 pp. 16 

The Independent Second Reader 

The Independent Third Reader 

The Independen: Fourth Reader 

The Independent Fifth Reader . 

The Independent Sixth Reader . 

The Independent Child's Speller (Sm'pf) 80 pp. 16° 
The Independent Youth's SipeWev {Script) 168 " 12° 
The Independent Complete Speller . . 162 " 16'^ 
Watson's Graphic Speller 128 '' 16^" 

Sui>L-iinr ill hwchdiiic d ixrcitinn, coniiircliciisive, i)ro;;rc.ssive. jiractical, nnd intorcstiiifr. 
TliH liitrohtrMon f^\\e% briefly the npodfiil instniftion and exercises in the elements of 
Bpclling, prnnmieiation, words, and lines ami rii,Mires. Tlie Exereises in Drawini:: are 
not siir])assed hy any seliool manual or set of cards, and tlie Writ'n'^' E\erci os are as 
imiTK^rons and as proirressive as tliosp of any series of writin'^-hoo's. Tl'e VnrihTlnru 
contains about 6.001 of tlie most useful and desiral)l<^ Endish words, strictly class'fied 
with reirard to fnrm. IciL'tli, sound, and tiij)ic. Tlieir niennin'^ anil use is Icmed 
from the Ixivnynne /.r««o7is- and tlie Dictntiov TtfHnvx. and tlieir correct jironuncint'on 
is t'iven rv-Tyv^hore The Appendix contains Rules in Spelling, Capital Letters, Punctu- 
atiuu Marks, and Abbreviations. 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 

WATSON'S INDEPENDENT 
READERS. 



This Series is designed to meet a general demand for smaller and cheapei 
books than the National Series pro]:)er, and to serve as well lor intermediate 
volumes of the National Readers in large graded schools requiring more books 
than one ordinary series will supply. 

Beauty. — The most casual observer is at once impressed with the impar- 
alleled mechanical beauty of the Independent Readers. The Publishers be- 
lieve that the esthetic tastes of children may receive no small degree of 
cultivation from their very earliest school-books, to say nothing of the impor- 
tance of making study attractive by all sucli artificial aids that are legitimate. 
In accordance with this view, not less than .$2.5,000 was expended in their 
preparation before publishing, with a result which entitles them to be con- 
sidered "the perfection of common-school books." 

Selections. — They contain, of course, none but entirely new selections. 
Tiiese are an-anged according to a strictly progressive and novel method of 
developing tlie elementary sounds in order in the lower numbers, and in all, 
with a view to topics and general literary style. Tlie mind is thus led in hxed 
channels to proficiency in every branch of good reading, and the evil results of 
"scattering," as practised by most school-book authors, avoided. 

The Illustrations, as may be inferred from what has been said, are ele- 
gant beyond coni}')ai ison. TJiey are profuse in every number of the series, from 
the lowest to the highest. This is the only series published of which this 
is true. 

The Type is semi-phoneuc, the invention of Professor Watson. By it every 
letter liaving more than one sound is clearly distinguished in all its variations 
without in any way mutilating or disguising the normal form of the letter. 

Klocution is taught by prefatory treatises of constantly advancing grade 
and completeness in each volume, which are illustrated by woodcuts in the 
lower books, and by blackboard diagrams in the higlier. Professor Watson 
is the hrst to introduce practical illustrations and blackboard diagrams for 
teaching tliis branch. 

Foot-Notes on every page afford all the incidental instruction whioli the 
teacher is usually required to impart. Indices of words refer the pupil to the 
place of their first use and definition. The biographies of authors and others 
are in every sense excellent. 

Economy. — Although the number of pages in each volume is fixed at the 
minimum, for the purpose recited above, the utmost amount of matter avail- 
able without overcrowding is obtained in the space. The pages are much 
wider and larger than those of any competitor and contain twenty per cent 
more matter than any other series of the same type and nimiber of pages. 

All the Great Features. — Besides the above all the popular features of 
the National Readers are retained except the word-building system. The 
latter gives place to an entirely new method of progressive development, based 
upon some of the best features of the word system, phonetics, and object 
lessons. 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 

PARKER «& WATSON'S NATIONAL 
READERS. 



The salient features of these works which have combined to render them so popular 
may be hrii'fly rec.ipittilatt'd, as tnllnws: — 

1. THE WORD-BUILDING SYSTEM. — This famous progressive method 
for young chiMreii (irij,'iiiate(l ami was mjiyngliU'd witli tlieso books It constitutes a 
process with wliicli tlie lieginner witli irords o, one letter is gradually introduced to 
additional lists formed by prdixing or alhxing single letters, and is thus led almost 
insensibly tf) the mastery ot the more difficult constructions. This is one of the most 
striking modern improvements in metliods ofteacliing. 

2. TREATMENT OF PRONUNCIATION. — The wants of the youngest 
Rcliplars in this department hyh not overlooked. It may be said that from "the first 
lesson the student by this metliod need never be at a loss for a prompt and accurate 
rendering of every word encountered. 

3. ARTICULATION AND ORTHOEPY are considered of primary importance. 

4. PUNCTUATION is inculcated hy a series of interesting reading lessons, i\\Q 
simple per.isal ol wliicli suffices to fix its princii>les indelibly upon the mind. 

5. ELOCUTION. —Each of the higher Readers (3d, 4th, and 5th) contains elabo- 
rate, sciiolarly, and tlioroughly practical treatises on elocution. This feature alone has 
secured hjr the series many of its warmest friends. 

6. THE SELECTIONS are the crowning glory of the series. Without excep- 
tion it may l)e said llial no xdhinies of the .same size and character contain a collection 
so diversified, judicious, and artistic as this. It embraces the choieest gems of Eng- 
lish literature, so arranged as to afford the reader aniplccxerci.se in every department 
of style. So acceptable has the tiiste of the authors in this department proved, not 
only to the educational puiilic but to the reading community at large, tliat thousands 
of copies of the Fourth and Fifth Readers have foiuid their way into j»ublic and private 
libraries throughout the country, where they are in coi.st uit use as manuals of litera- 
lure, for reference as well as perusal. 

7. ARRANGEMENT. —The exercises are so arranged as to present constantly 
alternating inactice m tiie different styles of comjiosition, wliile ol)serving a definite 
plan of ).rogression or gradation throughout the whole. Iii the higher books the 
articles are placed in formal sections an* classified tojiically, thus concentrating the 
interest and inculcating a princijile of association likely to prove valuable in subr-6- 
que'it general reading. 

8. NOTES AND BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. - These are full and ade- 
quate to every want. The biograiihical sketches present in pleasing style the history of 
every author laiil under contrittution. 

9. ILLUSTRATIONS. —These are plentiful, almost profuse, and of the highest 
charaeter 01 art. Tlicv are found in every volume of the series as far as and including 
the Third Reader. 

10. THE GRADATION is perfect. Each volume overlaps its companion pre- 
ceding or following in the series, so that the scholar, in i)assing from one to another, is 
only conscious, by the presence of the new book, of the transition. 

11. THE PRICE is reasonable. The National Readers contain more matter than 
any other series in the same ntmiber of volumes i)ublished. Considering their coni- 
jiletencss and thoroughness, they are much the cheapest in the market. 

12. BINDING. — By the u.se of a material and process known only to them.selves, 
in ecunmon with all the i)ulilication8 of this house, the National Readers are warranted 
to outlast any with which they may be compared, the ratio tif relative durability 
being in their favor as two to one. 

8 



TH£ NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS, 



SUPPLEMENTARY READING. 



Monteith's Popular Science Reader. 

James Monteith, author of Monteith's Geographies, has here presented a Supple- 
mentary Reading Boole expressly for the work of instruction in reading and science at 
one and the same time. It presents a number of easy and interesting lessons on Natural 
Science and Natural History, interspersed with appropriate selections in prose and 
poetry from standard authors, with blackboard drawing and written exercises. It 
serves to instil the noblest qualities of soul and mind, without rehearsing stories of 
moral and mental depravity, as is too often done in juvenile books. The book is elabo- 
rately illustrated with fine engravings, and brief notes at the foot of each page add to 
the value and teachableness of the volume. 12mo, half bound, 360 pages. 

The Standard Supplementary Readers. 

The Standard Supplementary Readers (formerly Swinton\'i Supplementary Readtrs), 
edited by William Swinton and George R. C.ithciirt. have been received with marked 
favor in representative quarters from Maine to California. They comprise a series of 
carefully graduated reading books, designed to connect with any series of school Readers. 
They are attractive in appearance, are bound in cloth, and the first four books are 
profusely illustrated by Fredericks, White, Dielman, Church, and others. The six books, 
which are closely co-ordinated with the several Readers of any regular series, are •■ — 

1. !Easy Steps for Little Feet. Supplementary to First Reader. 

In this book the attractive is the chief aim, and the pieces have been written and 
chosen with special reference to the feelings and fancies of early childhood. 128 pages, 
bound ii cloth and profuv^sely illustrated. 

2. Golden Book of Choice Reading. Supplementary to Second 

Reader. 
This book represents a ^reat variety of pleasing and instinctive reading, consisting of 
child-lore and poetry, noble examples and attractive object-reading, written specially for it. 
192 pages, cloth, with numerous illustrations 

3 Book of Tales. Being School Readings Imaginative and Emotional. 
Supplementary to Third Reader. 

In this book the youthful taste for imaginative and emotional is fed with pure and noble 
creations drawn from the literature of all nations. 272 pages, cloth. Fully illustrated. 

4. Readings in Nature's Book. Supplementary to Fourth Reader. 
This book contains a varied collection of charming readings in natural history and 

botany, drawn from the works of the great modern naturalists and travellers. 352 pages, 
<loth. Fully illustrated. 

5. Seven American Classics. 

6. Seven British. Classics. 

The " Classics " are suitable for reading in advanced grades, and aim to instil a 
taste for the higher literature, by the presentation of gems of British and American 
authorship. 220 pages each, cloth. 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Smith's Series. 

Smitli's Series supplies a Speller for every class in graded schools, and compria^t 
the most complete and excellent treatise on English Orthography and its companion 
brandies extant. 

1. Smith's liittle Speller. 

First roiiml in the ladiler of learning. 

2. Smith's Juvenile Definer. 

Lessons comjioscd of familiar words grouped with reference to similar significa. 
tion or use, and correctly spelled, accented, and defined. 

3. Smith's Grammar-School Speller. 

Familiar words, grouped with reference to the sameness of sound of syllables dif- 
ferently spelled. Also definitions, complete rules for spelling and formation of deriva- 
tives, and exercises in false ortliograpliy. 

4. Smith's Speller and Definer's ManuaL 

A complete School 7ncf(o/m <•.(/, containing 14,000 wor***, with various other useful 
matter in the way of rules and exercises. 

5. Smith's Etymology — Small and Complete Editions. 

The first and only Etymology to recognize the Anglo-Saxon our mother tongue; 
containing also full lists of derivatives from the Latin, Greek, Gaelic, Swedish, Norman, 
&c. , &c. ; being, in fact, a complete etymology of the language for schools. 

Northend's Dictation Exercises. 

Embracing valual>le information on a thousand topics, communicated in such a 
manner as at once to relieve the exercise of spelling of its usual tedium, and combine 
it with instruction of a general character calculated to profit and amuse. 

Phillip's Independent Writing Speller*- 

1. Primary. 2. Intermediate. 3. Advanced. 

Unquestionably the best results can \>e attained in writing spelling exerci.ses. This 
series combines with written exercise a thorough and jiractical instruction in penman, 
ship. Cojiies in capiUils and small letters are set on every page. Spaces for twenty 
wonls and definitions and errors are given in each lesson. In the advanced book there 
is additional s]ia<e for sentences. In practical life we spell only when we write. 

Brown's Pencil Tablet for Written Spelling. 

The cheapest prepared pad of ruled blanks, with stiff board back, sufficient foi 
64 lessons of 25 words. 

Pooler's Test Speller. 

The liest collection of " hard words " yet made. The more uncommon ones are fully 
defined, and the whole are arramied iilphrtbeticnUy for convenient reference. The Ixiok 
is designed for Teachers' Institutes and " Spelling Schools," and is prepared by ao 
experienceil and well-known conductor of Institutes. 

Wright's Analytical Orthography. 

This standard work is i)oj)iilar, because it teaches the elementary sounds in a 
pUin and philosophical manner, and ]*re8ents orthography and orthoepy in an easy, 
onifonn system of analysis or parsing. 

10 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



ORTHOGRAPHY — Continued. 

Barber's Complete Writing Speller. 

"The Student's Own Hand-Book of Ortiiogra])liy, Definitions, ann Sentences, coi^ 
sisting of Written Exercises in tlie Pro])er Spelling, Meaning, and Use of Words." 
(Published 1873.) This differs from Sherwood's and other writing s])ellers in its mors 
comprehensiA'e character. Its blanks arc adapted to "writing whole sentences instead 
of detached words, with the ])ro]ier fUvision.s for numbering corrections, &c. Such 
aids as this, like Watson's Child's Speller and Phillip's Writing Speller, tind their 
raison d'etre in the postulate that the art of correct spelling is dependent upon written, 
and not upon siioken language, for its utility, if not for its very existence. Hence 
the indirectaiess of purely oral instruction. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

Smith's Complete Etymology. 
Smith's Condensed Etymology. 

Containing tlie Anglo-Saxon, French, Dutch, German, Welsh, Danish, Gothic, Swedish, 
Gaelic, Italian, Latin, and Greek roots, and the English words derived therefrom 
accurately spelled, a(>eented, and defined. 



From Hon. Jno. G. McMynn, late State 
Swperin/endent of Wisconsin. 

" I wish every teacher in the country 
had a co])y of this work." 

From Prof. C. H. Vekrill, Pa. State 

Normal School. 

"The Etymology (Smith's) which we 
procured of you we like nuich. It is the 
best work for the class-room we have 
seen." 



From Prin. Wm, F. Phelps, Minn. Slate 
Normal. 

"The book is superb — just what is 
needed in the department of etymology 
and spelling." 

From Hon. Edward Ballard, Supt. oj 
Common Schools, Stale of Maine. 

•' The author lias furnished a manual o/ 
singular utility for its purpose.'* 



DICTIONARY. 

Williams's Dictionary of Synonyms ; 

Or, Topical Lexicon. Tliis work is a School Dictionary, an Etymology, a compilation 
of Synonyms, and a manual of General Information. It differs from the ordinary lexicon 
in being arranged by topics, instead of the letters of the alphabet, thus realizing th€ 
apparent paradox of a " Readable Dictionary." An vuiusuaJ'y valuable school-book. 

Kwong's Dictionary of English Phrases. 

With Illustrative Sentences, collections of English and Chinese Proverbs, transla- 
tions of Latin and French Phrases, historical sketch of tlie Chinese Emiiire, a chrono- 
logical list of the Chinese Dynasties, brief biographical sketches of Confucius and 
of Jesus, and complete index. By Kwoug Ki Chin, late Member of the Chinese Edu- 
cational Mission in the United States, and formerly principal teacher of English in the 
Government School at Shanghai, China. 9 0piges. 8vo Cloth. 

From the Hartjord Courant : " The volume is one of the most curious and interest- 
ing of linguistic works." 

From the New York Nation : " It will amaze the sand-lot gentry to be informed that 
this remarkable woi:k vf i]i supplement our English dictionaries even for native Americans " 

11 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 
DICTIONARIES — Continiud. 

Jenkins's Handy Lexicon. 
Jenkins's Vest-Pocket Lexicon. 

A ilictioiiary df all t'Xff'i«t faiiiiiiar words, including the principal scientific and t*ch- 
nical terms, and f()reij,'n moneys, weights, and measures. It omits grammatical and 
terminal \ariatioiis, since words varying as iinrrate, narrative, narratively, etc., would 
all be understood by becoming acquainted with any one of them. 

Obsolete and local words are generally omitted. 

Latin and French jthrases of two or three words, and names of classical mythology 
can be found in their alpliabotical jdaces. Also foreign moneys, weights, ajid measures. 

By omitting words which every one knows, there is room for nearly all that any one 
rc(juires to know. 

Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. 

A handy Anglo-Saxon dictionary, adapted from Grein's Librarj' of Anglo-Saxon 
poetiy. By Dr. Fr. Groscho]>p. Translated into English, revised and corrected, with 
outline of Anglo-Saxon grammar and a list of irregular verbs, by William Malone 
Baskerville, Ph. D. ^Lijis.), Professor of English Language and Literature, Vanderbilt 
Univei-sity, and .lames Ali>ert Harrison, Professor of English and Modern LanguageSt 
Washington and Lee University. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Cobbett's English Grammar. 

With notes, by Robert Waters, Prineii)al of West Hoboken High School. Author of 
" Life and Language of Cobbett.''. 

This book consists of a series of twenty-one letters, written by William Cobbett. 
They are intended for schools and young persons, but more especially for sailors, 
ajiprentices soldiers, and jilou^^h-boys. 

In addition to tlie.se letters there are six lessons intended to prevent statesmen from 
using false grammar and from writing in an awkward manner. 

This is the oidy grammar that can ])rofitably be used without a teacher. 

Th" n-ites are written in an easy style, and are simple and plain. 

Soir.e Topics in English Grammar. 

By Arthur Hinds. 142 j.ages ICnio. Cloth. 

Teachers arc almost unanimous in condemning gramm..rs as untruthful, or inconsist- 
ent, or complicated, or as combining these faults. The distinctive features of this 
work, which is the J. G. Scott, or Westfield Normal School system, are : the natural 
meth'id of ])resenting the subjects, the cutting loose from what is mere tradition, the 
conciseness with which the matter is treatetl. The book should be read by every pupil 
and teacher of grammar. 

Johnson's Elements of English Grammar.. Part I. 

Ill/; i.a.'fs iL'iiio. Ilalf-bonnd 

To learn the rudiments of English Grammar, tliere is no Utile book more clear and 
8ini])le than this beginner's book, by Mr. 11. F. Johnson, of Urookhaven, Miss. It is 
Insed u])on the jilaii of (piestions and answers, and is adajtted to the comjirehension of 
the youngest learners of laHguage. 

R. G. White's Grammar of the " Grammarless 
Tongue." 

If Englisli can Ic iclcased froi.i rigid formulas derived from its analogies with other 
tongues, and tauuht as a distinct sriencf, subject oidy to the laws of reason, we shall 
have "Grammar," as taught by the Fathers, fully reconeiled witli the modem rai,'e for 
" Language Lessons," and the hap]>y middle ground of the future established. To real- 
ize this, see Professor Sill's new book. 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS, 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



SILL'S SYSTEM. 
Practical LfCssons in English. 

A brief course in Grammar and Composition. By J. M. B. Sill. This beautiful 
book, by a distinguished and experienced teacher, at once adopted for exchisive use 
in the State of Oregon and the city of Detroit, simply releases English Grammar 
from bondage to Latin and Greek formulas. Our language is worthy of being taugiit 
as a distinct and independent science. It is almost destitute of inflections and yet 
capable of being systematized, and its study may certainly be simplified if treated by 
itself and for itself alone. Superintendent Sill has cut the Gordian knot and leads 
the van of a new school of granunarians. 



CLARK'S SYSTEM. 
Clark's Easy Lessons in Language 

Contains illustrated object-lessons of the most attractive character, and is couched 
in language freed as much as possible from the dry technicalities of the science. 

Clark's Brief English Grammar. 

Part Lis adapted to youngest learners, and the whole forms a complete " br'ef 
course " in one volume, adequate to the wants of the common school. There is no- 
where published a superior text-book for learning thd English tongue than this. 

Clark's Normal Grammar. 

Designed to occupy the same grade as the author's veteran " Practical" Grammar, 
though tlie latter is still furnished upon order. The Jformal is an entirely new treatise. 
It is a full exposition of the system as described below, with all the most recent im- 
l)rovements. Some of its peculiarities are, — a happy blending of Syntheses with 
Analyses ; thorough criticisms of common errors in the use of our language ; and 
important improvements in the sjmtax of sentences and of phrases. 

Clark's Key to the Diagrams. 

Clark's Analysis of the English Language. 

Clark's Grammatical Chart. 

The theory and practice of teaching grammar in American schools is meeting with a 
thorough revolution from the use of this system. While the old methods offer profi- 
ciency to the pupil only after much weary plodding and dull memorizing, this affords 
from the inception the advantage of practical Object Teaching, addressing the eye by 
means of illustrative figures ; furnishes association to the memory, its most powerful 
aid, and diverts the pupil by taxing his ingenuity. Teachers who are using Clark's 
Grammar uniformly testify that they and their pupils find it the most interesting study 
of the school ccmrse. 

Like all great and radical improvements, the system naturally met at first with much 
unreasonable opposition. It has not only outlived the greater part of this 'ipposition, 
but finds many of its warmest admirers among those who could not at first tolerate so 
radical an innovation. All it wants is an impartial trial to convince the most scep- 
tical of its merit. No one who has fairly and intelligently tested it in the school-room 
has ever been known to go back to the old method. A gi'eat success is already 
established, and it is easy to prophesy that the day is not far distant when it will be 
the only system of teaching Encflish Grammar. As the System is copyrighted, no othei 
text-books can approiiriate this obvious and great improvement. 

Welch's Analysis of the English Sentence. 

Remarkable for its new and simple classification, its method of treating connectives 
Its explanations of the idioms and constructive laws of the language, &c. 

13 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



GEOGRAPHY. 

MONTEITH'S SYSTEM. 

TWO-BOOK SERIES. INDEPENDENT COURSE. 

Monteith's Elementary Geography. 

Monteith's Comprehensive Geography (103 maps). 

S^°" These volumes are not revisions of old works, not an addition to any series, 
but are entirely new productions, — each by itself complete, iiidejiendent, conijiroh*!!- 
6ive, yet sinijiU', brief, cheai), and popular; or, taken together, the most a<hiiirable 
" series " ever ottered v'ur a common-school course. They iJrtsent tlie following features, 
Rkilfully interwoven, the student learning all about one country at a time. Always 
reviseil to date of ])rintiii^'. 

LOCAL GEOGRAPHY. — Or, the Use of Maps. Important features of the maps 
are the coloring of States as objects, and the ingenious system for laying down a much 
L'jrger number of names for reference than are iound on any other maps of same size, 
and withoTit rrowdiiiu'. 

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. — Or, the Natural Features of the Earth; ilbws- 
trated by tlie original and striking relief maps, being bird's-eye viewts or photographic 
pictures of the earth's surface. 

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. — Including the Physical; •with some account 
of GnvcrniniMits and Races, Animals, &c. 

HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY. — Or, a brief snmmai-y of the salient points of 
history, explaining the present distribution of nations, origin of geographical 
names, &c. 

MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. — Including Astronomical, which describes 
the Karlh's ])ositinii and cliaracter among {)lanets ; also the Zones, Parallels, &c 

COMPARATIVE GEOGRAPHY. —Or, a system of analogy, connecting new 
lessons with the previous ones. Comi)arative sizes and latitudes are shown on the 
martrin of each map, and all countries are measured in the " frame of Kansas. " 

TOPICAL GEOGRAPHY. — Consisting of questions for review, and testing 
the students general and specific kno .'ledge of the subject, with suggestions for 
geogra[ihical compositions. 

ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. — A section devoted to this subject, with maps, will 
be appreciated by teachers. It is seldom taught in our common scliools, becau.se it 
has lieretofore required the purchase of a separate book. 

GRAPHIC GEOGRAPHY, or Map-Drawing by Allen's "Unit of Measure- 
nent' system (now almost universally recognized as without a rival), is introduced 
;hroujrhont the lessons, and not as an ajipendix. 

CONSTRUCTIVE GEOGRAPHY. — Or, Globe-Making. With each book a set 
of map segments is furnished, with which each student may make his own globe by 
inllowing the directions given 

RAILROAD GEOGRAPHY. —With a grand commercial map of the United 
States, illustrating steamer and railroad rout«s of travel in the United States, submarine 
telegraph lines, <kc. Also a " Practical Tour in Europe." 



MONTEITH AND McNALLY'S SYSTEM. 

THREE AND FIVE BOOKS. NATIONAL COURSE. 

Monteith's First Lessons in Geography. 
Monteith's New Manual of Geography. 
McNally's System of Geography. 

Tlie new edition of McNally's (Jt-ography is now ready, rewritten throughoiit by 
James Monteith and 8. C. F'rost. In its new dress, printed fnim new type, and illu«- 
trated with 100 new engravings, it is the latest, mo«t attractive, as weli as the most 
thoroughly practical book on geography extant 

16 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOK^. 

f — * 

GEOGRAPHY — Continued. 

INTERMEDIATE OR ALTERNATE VOLUMES IN THE FIVE BOOK SERIES. 

Monteith's Introduction to Geography. 
Monteith's Physical and Political Geography. 

I. PRACTICAL OBJECT-TEACHING. — The infant scholar is tirst introduced 
to a picture whence he may derive notions of the sliape of the eartli, the jihenoinena of 
day and night, the dis rihution of land and water, and the great natural divisions, 
which liiere wonis would fail entirely to convey to the untutored mind. Other picturw! 
follow on tlie same plan, and tlie child's mind is called upon to grasp no idea without 
the aid of a pictorial illustration. Carried on to the higher books, this system culmi- 
nates in Physical Geography, where such matters as climates, ocean currents, tlie 
winds, peculiarities of the earth's crust, clouds and rain, are pictorialiy explained and 
rendered apparent to the most obtuse. The illustrations used for this purpose belong 
to the higliest grade of art. 

a. CLEAR, BEAUTIFUL, AND CORRECT MAPS. — In the lower num- 
bers the maps avoid unnecessary detail, wliile respectively progressive and affording 
the pupil new matter for acquisition each time he approaches in the constantly en- 
larging circle the ]ioint of coincidence with previous lessons in the more elementary 
books. In the Physical and Political Geography the maps eml)raf;e many new and 
striking features. One of the most effective of these is the new plan for displaying on 
each map the relative sizes of countries not reiiresented, thus obviating much confu- 
sion which has arisen from the necessity of presenting maps in the same atlas drawn 
on different scales. The maps of "McNally'' have long l)een celebrated for their 
superior beauty and completeness. This is the only school-book in which the attempt 
y.> iwdkQ a, complete a.i\A& also clear and distinct, has been successful. Tlie map coloring 
tliroughout the series is also noticeable. Delicate and subdued tints take the idace ol 
the startling glare of inhannonious colors which too frequently in such treatises flazzle 
the eye», distract the attention, and serve to overwhelm the names of towns and the 
uatural features of the landscaiK! 

3. THE VARIETY OF MAP-EXERCISE. — Rfctrting each time from a dif- 
fcnuit l>asis, the pupil in many instances approaches tlie same fact no less than sia 
tithes, thus indelibly impressing it ujion his menjory. At the s;une time, this system is 
not allowed to l>ecome wearisome, the extent of exercise on each subject being grad- 
uated bv its relative imixirtance or dithcultv of acquisition. 

4. THE CHARACTER AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE DESCRIP- 
TIVE TEXT. — The cream of the science has been carefully culled, unimportant 
matter rejected, elaboration avoided, and a brief and concise -.nanner of presentation 
cultivated. The orderly consideration of topics has contributefl greatly to si)ijy)licity- 
Due attention is paid to the facts in history and astronomy which are inseparably con- 
nected with and important to the proper understanding of fice'>graphy, and such only 
are admitted on any terms. In a word, the National Sysi,e;u teaches geography as a 
scic-ice, pure, simjile, and exhaustive. 

5. ALWAYS UP TO THE TIMES.— The authors of these book.s editorially 
speaking, never sleep. No change occurs in the boundaries of countries or of counties, 
no new discovery is made, or railroad built, that is not at once noted and rectorded, and 
the next edition of each volume carries to everv school-roftm the new order of thim/s. 

6. FORM OF THE VOLUMES AND MECHANICAL EXECUTION, 
— The maps and text are no longer unnaturally divorced in accordance with the time- 
honored practice of making text-l)ooks on this subject as inconvenient and expensive as 
possible. On the contrary, all map questions ara to be found on the pag'e opi.x>site th« 
lunp itself, and each l>ook is complete in one volume. The mechanical execution is 
unrivalled. Pa]ier, printing, and binding are evei-ything that conld be desired. 

7. MAP-DRAWING. — In 1S6» the system of map-drav/ing devised bj FTofessor 
Jerome Allen was secured exdusirehj for this series. It derives its claim to original- 
ly and usefulness froui tlie introduction of a fixed tinit of mectsurement applicable to 
every map. The principles being so few, siiiiide, and comprehensive, the subject of 
map-drawing is relie\'ed of all practical ditiiculty. (In Nos. 2, 2*, and S, ana published 
se}>arately.) 

8. ANALOGOUS OUTLINES. — At the same time with map-drawii^ was alBo 
introduced (in No. 2) a new and ingenious variety of Object Lessons, consisting of a 
tcttuparisoQ of the outlines of countries witli familiar objects pictoiially represented. 

1A 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



BARNES'S NEW GEOGRAPHY. 
Barnes's Elementary Geography. Sra. 4to. Cloth. 9Gpp. 
Barnes's Complete Geography. Quarto. Cloih. 140 

pa^fos. o20 maps and illustrations. 

The object in view, whiU- making this series of books, was not so much cheapness ps 
perfcctioii, whicli is after all the truest economy. 

They K'^e all the instruction in geography which it is necessary to teach. From an 
artistic point of view they are niarvellou.sly beautiful l)ooks, and furnish the rising gen- 
erition witli instruments of e(iu<'ation far in advance of anything hitherto jiroduce^l. 

The Elementary Geography is based upon the principle of teacUing by observa- 
tion, aii'i is ail ipti'il 1(1 priuiary gr.ides. 

The Complete Geography is adapted to the intermediate and higher grades. It 
contains physical, descriptive, commercial, and industrial descriptions of the earth's 
surface. 

From the New England Journal of 
^ Education. 

"These two books form a series of un- 



equalled beauty and i)erfectiou in the style 
and artistic execution of the numerous 
illus*^r:itions, mai)S, and also in the tyiio- 
graphical work. It is like looking through 
a i>ortfoli') of art sketches to examine, and 
note tlie variety, beauty, and appropriate- 
ness of the illustrations of these two 
books. We fail to tind one illustration 
that does not teach its proper lesson in its 
connection with the descriptive text of 
the books. Too higii praise can hardly be 
given to these geograi)hies in the depart- 
ment of design and execution of the mai)S 
and illustrations. Fortunate is tiie edu- 
catioial author who has sucli artistic 
talent at his coniniand, and special credit 
is due to the art department of the pul)- 
lisliers of these l)ooks. But we are aware 
that jierfectioii in the mere mechanical 
l>reparation of books is not the highest 
test of their merit and i)ractical usefulness 
as scliooj text-books. 

" Turning to examine the methods of 
instruction adojjfed in this series of geog- 
raphy, we find a recognition, not only of 
the l>est pcilnijo'jical principles of teaching, 
but an ai)i>lication of the correct laws of 
culture in nuthods that give these books 
tlieir true position in tiie front rank of 
practical school books. In the elementary 
i)ook Mr. Moiueith leads the young learner 
t<i look at things arouml him and learn of 
them, to ol)serve, examine. discf)ver, in- 
quire. Beginning at the school grounds 
tiie puj>ils are le<l to study for themselves 
their own town, <'ity, county, state, coun- 
try, continent, and the world. The ad- 
mirably graded lessons are i)rescntcd in a 
natural, easy, conversational style, calcu- 
lated to develop the reasoning j)Owcrs, as 
Well as to stimulate the individual efforts 
of jHipils to help themselves. We espe- 
cially commend to the attention of teach- 
tJd ui j>rimary sc".u;ol8 the foot-uotes, the 



writing exercises witli language lessons, 
teaching by means of journeys and 
voyages, etc., whicli are found in the 
Elevivntary Book. 

" In the Complete Book we find the ac- 
complished author has continued the ob- 
servational and deductive methods, begin- 
ning with facts, which are used wisely as 
stepi)ing-stones to a<lvanced knowledge. 
The i)hysical features are attractively 
presented in their relation to the industries 
of the world. The ilhniiinated i>ictures 
of the hemispheres, showing the earth as 
in a jiainting or on a relief globe ; the races 
of men in colors, showing features, com- 
plexions, costumes, etc. ; the trans-conti- 
nental views, — panoramas of the conti- 
nents from ocean to ocean, — teaching, at 
a glance, the physical features ; and the 
admirable maps, with the names of 
]irincipal jdaces engraved in boldfaced 
letters ; comi)arative area, comjiarative 
latitude and extent, comjiarative tempera- 
ture, comparative time of day throughout 
the world, is shown by means of clock 
dials, — also the standard time ; elevations 
of surface are shown by sectional views 
under the maps and the small i>hysical 
charts, showing the jiroducts, seajports, 
highlands, lowlands, etc, of the earth. 
These are features of the Complete Book 
worthy of si'ecial mention and commei)- 
dation. The language lesso!isand written 
exercises furnish valuable and interesting 
topii'al reviews. 

" In examining these books, it seems to 
us that both author and juiblishers have 
vied with each otiier to make this two- 
book series of geograi)hy as near ]ierfect as 
a study of correct iirincijiles and methods 
of teaching, the use of artistic skill in illus- 
trations and ma])s, the style aiu! arrange- 
ment of tyjie, and good paper and tasteful 
binding could secure. The books are a 
credit to American skill and taste. We 
commend them to Rcliool officers and 
teachers for examination and us«.'' 



IT* 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



GEOGRAPHY — Continued. 

Monteith's Boys' and Girls' Atlas of the World. 

Showing all the political divisions nf the ■n'orM, witli map-drawing and written exer- 
cises, or imaginary voyages, commercial routes, principal products, comparative areas 
and populations, height of mountains, length of rivers, highlands, and lowlands. 16 
full-page, finely colored maps. 40 pages. Small quarto. 

The maps show all that is needful for the study of geography, besides the courses of 
rivers and oceanic currents, comparative time by clock faces, standard time, profile 
maps, comparative latitude and extent, comparative area, comparative temi)erature, 
highlands and lowlands, principal products, rate of sjieed on rail or steamship. Partic» 
ularly valuable as a text-book where oral teaching is attempted. 

Monteith's Old Physical Geography. 

The cry of " Too much of Text-Books," so frequently heard, is most happily answered 
by this exceedingly valuable little work, entitled "Monteith's Physical Geography." 
Within a convenient-sized volume (.54 jip. quarto) the author here presents all of Physi- 
cal Geography that the majority of classes can possibly find time to j>ursue. 

The kindred sciences hitherto unnecessarily combined with this branch of study — 
adding far more to the size and price of the text^books than to their value — are in this 
work either very materially cut down or wholly eliminated. The book is admirably 
illustrated, containing over sixty very ])ractical cuts, and a sufficient number of finely 
colored Maps. Its arrangement is excellent, paper, type, binding, etc., fully in keeping 
with its other advantages, and its price so moderate that it is brought within the reach 
of all grades of schools. 

Monteith's New Physical Geography. 

Owing to the great j/rogress made in physical science during the past few j'ears, the 
publishers of Monteith's Physical Geography have deemed it necessary to prepare a 
new volume which shall embrace the more recent results of modern research in this field. 
The great popularity enjoyed by Monteith's Physical Geography during the past twenty- 
five years waiiauts the assertion that the vofume now presented will i>rove a most 
valuable addition to the geographical works of Professor Monteith, which have since 
their publication been recognized as standards. 

In presenting Monteith's New Physical Geography, the publishers desire to call the 
attention of educators and school boards to the following points : — 

It embraces all of the recent discoveries in Physiography, Hydrography, Meteorology, 
Terrestrial Magnetism, and Vuk-anology. 

In the mechanical execution of its pages it is unsurpassed by any text-book of the 
kind ever published. 

The maps and charts have been compiled from original sources, and therefore com- 
prise the latest discoveries pertaining to geogi'aphical science. 

While the easy style, graphic description, and the topical arrangement of subjects 
adapt it especially for use in grammar schools, it will be found equally adapted for use 
in high and normal schools. Concluding each chai)ter is a brief resvvie of the main facts 
presented therein, a feature that will commend itself to every live teacher and i^upiL 

Many of the chapters contain much new matter that has never before appeared in any 
text-book. As examples of this may be mentioned the subject of Terrestrial Mapnetism, 
in the preparation of which the author has had access to the records of the U.S. Mag- 
netic Observatory, through the courtesy of Professor Marcus Baker, U.S. C. & G.S. 

The subject of Volcanoes has been comiiiled from the observations of Professor Judd, 
who is the recognized leading authority on this subject. 

The chapters on River and Ocean Hydrography embrace many new and interesting 
facts brought to light by the new surveys of the U. S. Engineer Corps, and by Commander 
Bartlett, tl.S.N. Those pertaining to Ocean Currents are especially important. 

The subject of Meteorology contams much new information. The Law of Storms is 
the most complete exposition of the subject that has ever been published in a 
text-book. 

Not the least instructive feature of the volume is the Record of Recent Geographical 
Discoveries, which contains a brief account of the explorations of De Long, Nordenskjold, 
Schwatka, Greely, and Shufeldt. 

It contains 144 pages, 125 illustrations, and 15 colored maps. 

18 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



uKuuKAl'ilV — LoiUiiiiie<.i.. 



From Supt. J. C. GiLSON, Oakland, Cat, 

"I am i)leaseil,(leli^'lited, clianncJ with 
It. It is au ideal work." 

from Prof. J. W. Ferrel, Bloomslmrg, 
Ptun. 
"It is a cbarnnng woik. Ucautifully 



illustrated and enilirafin* all the depart, 
lueiits that oui,dit to be treated." 

From C. B. Metcalf, M'o/'fcj^cr, Mass. 

•• Beautiful outside and inside, Tyi)og' 
raidiy uusurjiassed. The text the best 
IVaiure. Syiioiisis at the end of each 
ih.qtter a striking point of excellcuee." 



MAP-DRAWING. 

Monteith's Map-Drawing Made Easy. 

A neat little book of outlines and instruetions, giving the "corners of States " in 
suitable blanks, so tliai maps can be cb-awn by unskilful hands from any atlas ; with 
•instructions for written exercises or compositions on geographical subjects, and com- 
parative geograpliy. 

Monteith's Manual of Map-Drawing (Allen's System). 

The only consistent pl.in, by which all niai>s are drawn on one scale. By its use 
much time may be saved, and much interest and accurate knowledge gained. 

Monteith's Map-Drawing and Object Lessons. 

The last-named treatise, bound witli Mr. .MoiUeiUi s ingenious system for commit- 
ting outlines to mcniorv by means of jiictures of living creatures ami familiar objects. 
Thus, South America resembles a dog's head; Cuba, a lizard; Italy, a boot; France, a 
cotfee-[iot ; Turkey, a turkey, &c. , &c. 

Monteith's Colored Blanks for Map-Drawing. 

A new aid in teaching geography, wliich will l»e found especially useful in recitationa, 
reviews, and examinations. The series comprises any section of the world required. 

Monteith's Map-Drawing Scal3. 

A ruler of wood, graduated to the " Alien IJxed unit of measurement." 



WALL MAPS. 

Monteith's Pictorial Chart of Geography. 

Tlie original drawing for tliis be.uitiful and instructive chart was greatly admired in 
the imblisher's " exhibit " at the Centennial Exhibition of 1876. It is a picture of the 
e;irth's surfare with every natural feature displayed, teaching also jihysical geogniphy, 
and esiiecially the mutations of water. The uses to whicli man imts'the earth and its 
treasures and forces, as Agriculture, Mining, Manufacturing, Commerce, and Transpor- 
l;ition, arc aLso graphically portiyed, so that the young learner gets a realistic idea of 
•' the world we live in,'" which weeks of book study might fail to convey. 

Monteith's School Maps, 8 Numl)er.<*. 

Tic- " .S'hool Scries" includes the IIemisi>lieres ('2 maps), United States, North 
America, South .\merica, Europe, Asia, Africa. Price, ?2 50 each. 

Each map is 28 x .S4 inclujs, y)eautirully colored, has tlie names all laid down, and U 
snbstantialiy mounted on canvas with rollers. 

Monteith's Grand Maps, 8 Numbers. 

The "Grand Scries" includes the Ilomisjiheres (I map). North America, United 
State.s, South .\merica, Europe, Asia, Africa, the World on Mercatm-'s Projection, ;itid 
riiysiral Maj) of the World, i'rice, .*.'>. 00 each. Size, 42 x 52 inches, names laid down, 
ec)lored, mounted, &c. 

Monteith's Sunday-School Maps. 

Imluding a map of Paul's Travels ($.0.00), one of Ancient Canaan ($3.00^ «nd Moil' 
em Palestine (*3.00), or Palestine and Canaan together ($5.00). 

11) 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHCOL-BOOKS. 



MATHEMATICS. 



DAVIES'S COMPLETE SERIES- 

ARITHMETIC. 

Davies' Primary Arithmetic. 

Davies' Intellectual Arithmetic. 

Davies' Elements of Written Arithmetic. 

Davies' Practical Arithmetic. 

Davies' University Arithmetic. 

TWO-BOOK SERIES. 

First Book in Arithmetic, Primary and Mental. 
Complete Arithmetic. 

ALGEBRA. 
Davies' New Elementary Algebra. 
Davies' University Algebra. 
Davies' New Bourdon's Algebra. 

GEOMETRY. 
Davies' Elementary Geometry and Trigonometryc 
Davies' Legendre's Geometry. 
Davies' Analytical Geometry and Calculus. 
Davies' Descriptive Geometry. 
Davies' New Calculus. 

MENSURATION. 
Davies' Practical Mathematics and Mensuration, 
Davies' Elements of Surveying. 
Davies' Shades, Shadows, and Perspective. 

MATHEMATICAL SCIENCE. 

Davies' Grammar of Arithmetic. 

Davies' Outlines of Mathematical Science. 

Davies' Nature and Utility of Mathematics. 

Davies' Metric System. 

Davies & Peck's Dictionary of Mathematics. 

20 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 

DAVTES' SERIES — ('o»^/w?(rr/. 

THE NEW SURVEYING- 

Van Amringe's Davies' Surveying. 

Hy Cliarlfs Uavics, LL.l>., author uf a l''ull Lm.rse' .-i Mathematics. Revised by J 
H()w;U(i Van AiuiiiiLce, A.M , i'liiJ., i'lofessoi ut Matlioiuatics iu Culuuibia College 
>}(> paj^ivs. Svd. Full sheep. 

Davies' Surveying originally appeared as a text-hook for the use of the United States. 
Military Acadeniy at West i'oint. It proved aciei>lalile to a inucli wider tield, and 
underwent elianges and iniiirovenients, until the autlior's linal revision, and Ikus remained 
the suindard work on the .><ulijeet for many year.s. 

In the present edition, 18S:'), while tlic admirable features whicli have hitherto com- 
mended the work so highly lo institutions of learning and to iiraetieal surveyors hav6 
been retained, some of the t<)i>ies have been abridged in treatment, and some eidarged. 
Others have l)een added, and the whole has been arranged in the order of i>rogressive 
development. A change whieli must prove particularly acceptable is the transformation 
of the article on mining-surveying into a complete treati.se, in which the location of 
clainss on the surface, the latest and best methods of underground traversing, &(■., the 
cali'ulation of ore-re.serves, autl all that i)ertains to the work of the mining-surveyor, 
are fully explained and illustrated by practical examples. Immediately on the publica- 
tion (d' this edition it was loudly welcomeil in all quarters. A letter received as we 
write, from Prof. R. C. Carpenter, of the Michigan State Agricultural College, bays: 
" 1 am delighted with it. I do not know of a mure complete work on the subject, and 
lam pleased to state that it is tilled with examples of tiie best methods oi modern 
practice. We shall introduce it as a textbook iu the college course. " This is a lair 
specimen of the general reception. 

Van Nostra liVs Eclectic EngiMXi^nng Maga- 
zine says: — 
"We find in this new work all that can 
be asked for in a text-book. If there is a 
better work than this on Surveying, either 
for students or surveyors, our attention 
has not been called to it." 



MathematicAil Alma))ac and Annval 
says:— 

" Davies is a deservedly popular author, 
and his mathematical works are text- 
Ixjoks in many of the leading schools and 
colleges." 



THE NEW LEGENDRE. 

Van Amringe's Davies' Legendre. 

Elements of Geometry and Trigonometry. liy Cliarles Davies, LL.D. Revised (18S51 
by Prof J. H. Van Amring-. of Columbia Colle„'e. New jiages. Svo. Full >ather. 

The pre.sent edition of the Legendre is the resri- of a carefid re-oxaminatioii of the 
work, into widch have been incorporated such emendations in the wnv of greaicr clear- 
ness ofexpre-ssion or of proof as could be made wi'hout altering it in form or substance. 
Practical exercises are jilaced at the end of the several books, and comi>rise additional 
tlieorems, proldems, and numerical exercises tijion the principles of the IJook or Book.s 
preceding. They wdl be found of great .service in accustoming students, early in and 
throughout their course, to make for themselves pra<-tical ap|)licati(pn of geometric 
principles, ami constitute, in addition, a large and excellent boilv of rovi(>w and test 
tpiestions for the convenience of teachers. The Trigonometrv and mensuration have 
be-n carefully reviseil throughout ; the deduction of iiriiiciiiles and rides has been sim 
)d tied ; the discussion of tlie several cases wldch arise in the solution of triangh^ 
I'l.ine and s|>herical, h;is been maile more full and clear ; and the whole has, in detinition. 
ieinonstrati(jn, illustration, &c., been made to conform to the 1 itcst and best methods. 

it is iKiliftved that in (deamess and precisiot) of detinition, in general simjdicity .-Mi.i 
rijiorof demonstration, in the judicious arrangement of juactical exerci.ses, in orderly 
and logical development of the subject, and in compactness f>f form, Davies' Legendrc- 
is superior to any work of its grade for the gec.eral training of the loirical jiowers of 
pupils, and for their instruction in the great body of clementarv geometric truth. 

The work has t)een printed from entirely new plates, and n(j care has been sj)ared to 
Ifwike it » model of typographical excellence. 

21 



THt .HATIONAL SERIES OF STANDAfiD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



DAVIES'S NATIONAL COURSE 
OF MATHEMATICS. 

ITS RECORD. 

In claiming for this series the first place among American text-books, of whatever 
class, the publishers appeal to the niagniticeut record which its volumes have earned 
during the thirtij-fine years of Dr. Charles Davies's mathematic<il labors. The unremit- 
ting exertions of a life-time have placed the modern series on the same proud eniineu<;e 
among competitors that each of its predecessors had successively enjoyed in a course of 
constantly improved editions, now rounded to their perfect fruition, — for it seems 
almost that this science is susceptible of no further demonstration. 

During the period alluded to, many authors and editors in this department h?ve 
started into public notice, and, by borrowing ideas and processes original with Dr. Davie?, 
have enjoyed a brief popularity, but are now almost unknown. Many of the series of 
to-day, built upon a similar basis, and described as " modern books," are destined to a 
similar fate ; while the most far-seeing eye will find It difficult to fix the time, on the 
basis of any data afforded by tlieir past history, when these books will cease to mcrease 
and prosper, and fix a still firmer hold on tlie affection of every educated American. 

One cause of this unparalleled popularity is found in the fact that the enter j»rise of the 
autlior did not cease with the original completion of his books. Always a practical 
teacher, he has incorporated in liis text-books Urom time to time tlie advantages or every 
improvement in methods of teaching, and every advance in science. During ail the 
years in which he has been laboring he constantly submitted his own theories and those 
of others to the practical test of the class-room, approving, rejecting, or moaifymg 
them as the experience thus obtained might suggest. In this way he has Deen ai.le 
to produce an almost perfect series of class-books, in wliicli every depaitment of 
mathematics has received minute and exhaustive attention. 

Upon the death of Dr. Davies, whicli took jilace in 1876, his work was immediately 
taken up by his former pupil and mathematical associate of ra.any years. Prof. W. G-, 
Peck, LL.D., of Columbia College. By him, with Prof. J. H. Van Amriage, of Columbia 
College, the original series is kept carefully revised and up to tLe times. 



Davies's System is the acknowledged National Standard for the United 
States, for the following reasons : — 

1st. It is the basis of instruction in the great national schools at "West Point and 
Annapolis. 

2d. It has received the quasi indorsement of the National Congress. 

3d. It is exclusively used in the public schools of tlie Natitmal Capital. 

4th. The officials of the Government use it as authority in all cases involving mathe- 
matical questions. 

5th. Our great soldiers and sailors commanding the national armies and navies were 
educated in this system. So have been a majority of eminent scientists in tliis country 
All these refer to "Davies " as authority. 

6th. A larger number of American citizens have received their education from this 
than from any other series. 

7th. The series has a larger circulation throughout the whole country than any otb«r, 
being extensively used in every State in the Union. 

22 ^ 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHCxjL-BOOKS. 
DAVIES AND PECK'S ARITHMETICS. 

OPTIONAL OB CONSECUTIVE. 

Tlie best thoughts of these two illustrious uiatlieinaticiajis are combined in the 
following beautiful works, which fire the na.ur.il successors of Davies's Arithnietica, 
Bumptuuusly iiriut«d, and bound in crimson, green, and gold: — 

Davies and Peck's Brief Arithmetic. 

Also called llic '■ Klcnicnkiry Aritliiiietic." It is the shortest presentation of the snb- 
ject, and is ntLqualc lor all grades in (tomnion scln>ols, being a tiiorough introduction to 
practical life, excei)t for the specialist. 

At lirst the authors play with the little learner for a few lessons, by object-teaching 
and kindred allurements ; but he soon begins to realize that study is earnest, as he 
becomes familiar witli the simpler operations, and is delighted to liud himself master of 
iuH'oitant results. 

The second part reviews the Fundamental Ojterations on a scale proportioned tu 
the enlaiged intelligence of the Icainer. It establishes the General Piinciples and 
Properties of Numbers, and then proi eeds to Fractions. Currency and the Metric 
System are fully treated in cunnectidu with Decimals. Compound Numbers and Re- 
duction follow, and tinally Percentige with all its varied applications. 

An Index of words and i)rinciiiles concludes llie book, lor which every scholar and 
most teachers will be grateful. How much time has been s])ent in searching for a half- 
forgotten definition or principle in a lormer lesson ! 

Davies and Peck's Complete Arithmetic. 

This work certainly <icsci\es its name in the best sense. Though complete, it is not, 
like most others which bear the same title, cutubi-isumc. These authors excel in clear, 
lucid demonstrations, teaching the science pure and simple, yet not ignoring convenient 
methods and practical apjilications. 

For turning out a thorough business man no other work is so well adapted. He will 
have a clear conij>rehension of the science as a whole, and a working actjuaintance 
with details which must serve him well in aV emergencies. Distinguishing features of 
the book are the logical progression of the subjects ami the great variety of practical 
problems, not piczltx, which are beneath the dignity of educational science. A clear- 
minded critic has saifl o.' Dr. Peck's work that it is free from that juggling with 
numbers which some authors falsely call " Analysis." A series of Tables for converting 
ordinary weights and measures into the Metric System ajtpear in the later editions. 



PECK'S ARITHMETICS. 
Peck's First Lessons in Numbers. 

This book begins with jiictorial illustrations, and unfolds gradually the science of 
numbers. It noticeably simjilihes the subject by develo]iing the ]irinciples of addition 
and subtraction simultjiiieously ; as it does, also, those of multi])licalion and division. 

Peck's Manual of Arithmetic. 

This book is designed esjiecially 'or those who seek sufficient instruction to carry 
them successfully through i)ractical life, but have not time for extended study. 

Peck's Complete Arithmetic. 

This completes the scries but is a much briefer book than most of the completa 
irithmetics, and is rec<jmmended not only for what it contains, but also for what is 
omitted. 

It may be said of Dr. Peck's books more truly than of any other series published, that 
they are clear and simple in dehnition and rule, and that superfluous matter of every 
kind has been faithfully eliminated, thus ina^fnifying the working value of the book 
••d Raving unnecessary expense of time and labor. 

23 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



BARNES'S NEW MATHEMATICS. 

In this series Joseph Ficklin, Ph. D., Proressor of Mathematics and Astronomy 
in the University of Missouri, lias combined all the best and latest results of practical 
and experimental teaching uf arithmetic with the assistance of many distingursiied 
mathematical authors. 



Barnes's Elementary Arithmetic. 
Barnes's National Arithmetic. 

'these two woiks constitute a complete arithmetical course in two hooTcs. 

They meet the demand for text-books that will help students to acquire the greatest 
amount of useful and practical knowledge of Arithmetic by tlie smallest expenditure of 
tune, labor, and iiiunfi). Nearly every topic in Written Arithmetic is introduced, and its 
principles illustrated, by exercises in Oral Arithmetic. Tlie free use of Equations ; tlie 
concise method of combining and treating Properties of Numbers; the treatment of 
Multiplication and Divisiou of Fractions in two cases, and then reduced to one ; Can- 
cellation by the use of the vertical line, especially in Fractions, Interest, and Proportion ; 
tlie brief, sini[)le, and greatly superior method of working Paitia' Payments by the 
"Time Table " and Cancellation; the substitution of formulas to i. i^reat extent for 
rules; the full and i)ractical treatment of the Metric iSystem, &c., indicate their com- 
pleteness. A vurieti/ of metliods and processes for the aume topic, wliich deprive tiie 
pupil of the great beneftt of doing a part of the Ih'inkinc] and labor for hiniJ^elf, have 
been discarded. The statement of principles, delinitionsj rules, Ac, is brief and simple. 
The illustrations and methods are exi)licit, direct, and iiractical. The great number 
and variety of Examples embody the actual business of tlic day. The very large 
amount of matter couden:>ed in so small a compass has been accomplished by econo- 
mizing every line of sjiace, by rejecting superfluous matter and obsolete terms, and by 
avoiding the rtpetition of analyses, explanations, and operations in the advanced toj)ic6 
wliicli have been used in the more elementary parts of these books. 

AUXILIARIES. 

For use in district schools, and for supplying a text-book in advanced work for 
classes having finished the course as given in the ordinary Practical Arithmetics, the 
National Arithmetic has been divided and bouri separately, as follows : — 

Barnes's Practical Arithmetic. 

Barnes's Advanced Arithmetic. 

In many schools there are classes that for various reasons never reach beyond 
Percentage. It is just such cases where Barnes's Practical Arithmetic will answer i» 
good puri)ose, at a price to the pxipil much less than to buy the complete book. On the 
other hand, classes having linihed the ordinary Practical Arithmetic can proceed 
with the higher course by using Barnes's Advanced Arithmetic. 

For primary schools requiring simply a table book, and the earliest rudiments 
forcibly presented througli object-teaching and copious illustiations, we Lave 
prepared 

Barnes's First Lessons in Arithmetic, 

wliich begins with the most elementary notions of numbers, and proceeds, by simple 
steps, to develop all the fundaiuental principles of Arithmetic. 



Barnes's Elements of Algebra. 

This work, as its title indicates, is elementary in its character and suitable for uso 
»{1) in such public schools as give instruction in the Elements of Algebra : (2) in institu- 
tions of learning whose courses of study do not include Higher Algebra ; (3) in schools 
whose object is to prepare students for entrance into our colleges and' universities. 
This book will also meet the wants of students of Physics who require some knowledge oK 

24 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



Algebra. Tlie stntient's progress in Algebra depends very lar;,'cly upon the proper treat- 
meut of the four Fuudnmenlal Operations. The terms Additinn, S'lhlriictioii, Multiplicattoti, 
and IMrisii'ti in Algebra have a wider meaning than in Arithinetic, and these operations 
have l)een so detined as to include their arithmetical meaning ; so that the beginner 
is sinfMly called upon to enlanje his views of those fundamental ojierations. Much 
attfntion has l>ee:i given to the exidanation of the negative sign, in onler to remove the 
well-known ditliiuities in the use and interpri'tation of that sign, ^^pe(•ial attention is 
here called to " A Short Metliod of Ucmion lug Symbols of Aggregation," Art. 76. On 
account of their importance, the sulijects of Fcntmiitii, Grentrst ('(iihdkdi iiirisor, and 
Lfiist Common Multiple have been treated at greater length than is usual in elementary 
Works. Id the treatment o{ Fnicti»>i.t, a metiiod is used which is quite simple, and, 
\t tl/e same time, more general than that usually employed. In connecticm with Radirnl 
'Quantities the roots aie expressed by fractional exponents, for the ]>rinciples and rules 
applicable to integral exponents may then be used witiiout modification. The Equation 
is made the chief subject of thought in this work. It is delined near the beginning, 
and used extensively in every chapter. In addition to this, four chajjters are devoted 
exclusively to the t:'.'.bject of Equatiutus. All I'roportions are equations, and in their 
tr«atment"as such all the difliculty commoidy connected with the subject of Proi)()rtion 
disappeai-s. The chapter on Logarithms will doubtless be acceptable to many teachers 
who do not require the student to master Higher Algebra before entering upon ihe 
study of Trigonometry. 



HIGHER MATHEMATICS. 
Peck's Manual of Algebra. 

Bringing the nicthuds of Bourdon witliin the range of the Academic Course. 

Peck's Manual of Geometry. 

By a method purely practical, and unembarrassed by the details which i-ather confuse 
than simplify science. 

Peck's Practical Calculus. 
Peck's Analytical Geometry. 
Peck's Elementary Mechanics. 
Peck's Mechanics, with Calculus. 

The briefest treatises on these subjects now published. Adopted by the great Umvep» 
aities : Yale, Harvard, Colunil)ia, Princeton, Cornell, &c. 

Macnie's Algebraical Equations. 

Serving as a conipbmeiit to tlie more advanced treatises on Algebra, giving special 
attention to the analysis and solution of ei) nations with numerical coefficients. 

Church's Elements of Calculus. 

Church's Analytical Geometry. 

Church's Descriptive Geometry. AV'ith plaies. !^ vois. 

These volumes constitute tlie "West Point Coui"se"ni their several depur'ments. 
Prof. Church was long the eminent i)rofessor of mathematics at West Point MUitary 
Academy, and his works are standard in all the leading colleges. 

Courtenay's Elements of Calculus. 

A standard work of the very highest grade, prese»ting the most elaborate attainablo 
■urvey of the subject 

Hackley's Trigonometry. 

With a]iplicatk)us to Navigation and Surveying, Nautical and Practical Geometry, 
and Geodesy. 

25 



THt NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



BARNES'S ONE-TERM HISTORY 

SERIES. 




iSrailTilf SE3 




A Brief History of the United 
States. 

This is probably the most original school-book j)ub- 
lished for many years, in any department. A few of it» 
claims are the foliowing : — 

1. Brevity. — The text is complete for grammar school 
or intermediate classes, in 290 12mo i)ages, large type. 
It may readily be completed, if desired, in one term o( 
study. 

2. Comprehensiveness. — Though so brief, this book 
contains the pith of all the wearying contents of the larger 
manuals, and a great deal more than the memory usually 
retains ironi the latter. 

3. Interest has been a prime consideration. Small 
books have heretofore been bare, full of dry statistics, unattractive. This one is 
charmingly written, replete with anecdote, and brilliant with illustration. 

4. Proportion of Events. — It is remarkable for the discrimination with which 
the ditterent portions of our history are presented according to their importance. Thus 
the older works, being already large books when the Civil War took place, give it less 
space than that ac-corded to the Revolution. 

5. Arrangement. — In six epochs, entitled respectively. Discovery and Settlement, 
the Colonies, the Revolution. Growth of States, the Civil War, and Current Events. 

6. Catch Words. — Each paragraph is preceded by its leading thought in promi- 
nent tvpe, standing in the student's mind for the whole paragraph. 

7. Key Notes. — Analogous with this is the idea of grouping battles, &c., about 
some central event, which relieves the sameness so common in such descriptions, and 
renders each distinct by some striking peculiarity of its own. 

8. Foot-Notes. — These are crowded with interesting matter that is not strictly a 
part of history proper. They may be learned or not, at pleasure. They are certain 
ki any event to be read. 

9. Biagraphies of all the leading characters are given in full in foot-notes. 

i». Maps. — Elegant and distinct maps from engravings on copper-plate, and beauti- 
fully wnlored, precede each epoch, and contain all the places named. 

II. Questions are at the back of the book, to compel a more independent use of the 
text. Both text and questions are so worded that the pupil must give intelligeat 
answers in his own wobds. *' Yes" and " No " will not do. 

27 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



Primary History of the United States. 



Fur Iiitfiiiifdiate Classes, li'iiio "I'll 
introduclioii to liarnes's Historical Suiies. 
From Prof. C. W. Richards, High 

School, Osiccijo, N.y. 
" I think it an adiuiralile book.'* 

^rom D. Beach, }f Gibbons & Bach, 20 
We^t o'Jtk Street, N.Y. City. 

"Tlie little History is to me a very 
attractive book." 

From Prof. C. D. Larkins, Fayette- 
rille, i\ . V. 

'• It is the only Primary History that I 
ever saw that I liked." 

From Prot. L R. Hopkixs, IVeedsport, 

N.y. 

" I think Barnes's Primary History by 
far the best I ever saw." 

From Prof. Richard H. Lewis, Kingston 
ioUcge, N.C. 

" The subject matter is very good, and 
sliows reinarkablt condensing power in 
the author." 

From Prof. Edward Smith, Suj)t. of 
Schools, Syracuse, N. Y. 

" It is a very interesting and pretty 
book. I should like it very much for 
sui)plenientary rerding. "' 

From Gf.nkral Huratio C. Kinc, 
JiroA-lyn, N.Y. 

"I am esjipciall., jileased v.-ith ihe now 
Primary History, which is remarkably 
concise and interesting and I'ree from 
j'artisan bias." 

From Prof S. G. Harris, Drydev, N.Y. 

" Having a few days' vacation I found 
tunc to carefully examine the Primary 
History you sent me and am higldy de- 
rghtf(l with it. It will .satisfy a long- 
lelt want." 

From the New EnolnnA Jour- 
luil of EthicHtion. 

" The book is jjrinted in 
the best ty|>p, or. the linest 
Jiaper, and is illustrated in 
the nmst superb, even suniji- 
tious manner. Any child 
i7ho stmlies this exceptional 
ly beautiful little book wil 
i]navf>ida])ly have a liighcr 
regard for his country on 
uocount of the superior and 
charnung character of the 
book." 




l)ages. Beautilully illustrated. A fitting 

From Mr. H. H. Smith, Prcst. B ard of 
Eduaitlon, Vineyard Haven, Mass. 

" I should think you would feel proud 
of the work. " 

From Dr. Eugkne Bouton, Albany, N.Y. 

" I must congr.itulate every one on the 
publication of this beautifulHistory. ' 

From Prof. H. C. Talmadge, IVood- 
bunj, Ct. 

" It is the book that I have been look- 
ing for quite a long time." 

From Prof. L. C. Foster. Snpt. of 
Schools, Ithaca, N. Y. 

" It is indeed a very beautiful book, 
and it seems to me well adai>ted for use 
in the lower grammar grades." 

From Prof. F. H. Hall, Sinclairville, 
N. Y. 

" This History is the best thing of the 
kind I have ever seen How it could be 
imiuoved I do not see " 

From Prof. J. C Cruikshanic, Sv2tt. oj 
Education, Passaic Co., N.J. 
" It is the book needed, and will fill the 
gaji of early historical instruction in the 
si-hools."' 

From. Prof. S. U Morsf, Su/.t. of Ediicn- 
tioti, Atluut r Co , N.J. 

" I liavo examineil Barnes's Primary 
History of tlie United 8l;;te.s and find il. 
just wliatwc have v.'antcil in our schools. " 

From H. E. Pf,ri:ins, Srhoo^ Comnussiofier, 
Livingston Co , N.Y. 

"I *liiiik it tlic bcit Primary United 
States History that I f ver exan.ined, and 
will recommend it to my teadiers." 

From The Indiana Scliool 
Journal, 

" This book, comprised in 
225 l»ages, is what its title 
iiKlicatcs, ])rimary in matter 
and manner of treatment, and 
not simi)ly an abbreviation 
of a large book. By not at- 
tcmjitinc everything there is 
Spaeth for a I'lillcr discussion 
of the iiioie imi>ortant jioints. 
The author has clearly dis- 
criminated l>et ween si mi)licity 
of style and siniide thought." 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



HISTORY — Continued. 

12. Historical Recreations. — These are additional questions to test the student's 
knowledge, in review, as: " Wliat trees are celebrated in our history?" "When 
did a fog save our army?" "What Presidents died in office?'' "When was the 
Mississippi our western boundary?" "Who said, 'I would rather be I'ight than 
President •?" &c. 

13. The Illustrations, about seventy in number, are the work of our best artists 
id engravers, produced at great expense. They are vivid and interesting, and mostly 

upon subjects never before illustrated in a school-book. 

14. Dates- — Ordy the leading dates are given in the text, and these are so associated 
as to assist the memory, but at the head of each page is the date of the event tint 
mentioned, and at tl)e chise of each epoch a summary of events and dates. 

15. The Philosophy of History is studiously exhibited, the causes and effects 
of events being distinctly traced and their inter-connection shown. 

16. Impartiality. — All sectional, partisan, or denominational views are avoided. 
Facts are stated after a careful comparison of all authorities without the least prejudice 
or favor. 

17. Index. — A verbal index at the close of the book perfects it as a work of reference. 
It will be observed that the above are all particulars in which School Histories have 

been signally defective, or altogether wanting. Many other claims to favor it shares in 
common ™ith its predecessors. 



TESTIMONIALS. 



From Prof. Wm. F. Am.f.n, Slaie U/ii- 
rersUy of H'isconsin. 

"Two features that I lii^e rent much 
are the anecdotes at the foot of the page 
and the ^Historical Becnuitions' in the 
Appendix. The latter, I think, is quite 
a n:'w feature, and the other is reri/ well 
executed." 

From Hon. Newton Bateman, Superin- 
tendent Public Listruction , Illinois. 

" Barnes's One-Term History of the 
United States is an exceedingiy attrac- 
tive and spirited little book. Its claim 
to several new and valuable features seems 
well founded. Under the form of six well- 
detined epochs, the hi.stury of the United 
States is traced tersely, yet pithily, from 
the earliest times to tlie present day. A 
good map precedes each epoch, whereby 
the history and geography of the jieriod 
may be studied to.^etlier, us th y nlwai/s 
should he. The syllabus of each ]iar,igrapli 
is made to stand in such bold relief, by 
the use of large, heavy type, as to be of 
nuich mnemonic value to the student. The 
book is written in a sprightly and ])i- 
quant style, the interest never flagging 
from beguniing to end, — a rare and diffi- 
cult achievement in works of this kind. " 

W^om Hon. Abner J. Phipps, S'perin- 
tendent S-hools, Lnciston, Maine. 

" Barnes's History of the United States 



has been used for several years in the 
Lewistnn schools, and has prijved a very 
satisfactory work. I have examined the 
new edition of it." 

From Hon. R. K. Buchet.l, City S»perin- 
tendcnt Schools, Lancaster, Pa. 

" It is the best history of the kind I have 
ever seen." 

From T. J. Charlton, Sitperintendevt 
Public Schools, Vincrnnes, hid. 
" We have used it hei-e for six years, 
aTid it has given almost ]'er.ect satisfjic- 
tion. . . . The notes in fine print at tlie 
bottom of the pages are of especial value." 

From Prof. Wm. A. Mowrv, E. c}- C 
School, Providence, K. I. 

" Permit me to express my high appre- 
ciation of your book. I wish all 1ext- 
books for the young had equal merit." 

From Hon. A. M. Keiley, City Attorney, 
Late Mayor, and President of the School 
Board, City of Richmond, Va. 

" I do not hesitate to volunteer to you 
the opinion that Barnes's History is en- 
titled to the preference in almost evei7 
respect that distinguishes a good school- 
book. . . . The narrative generally exhibits 
the temper of the judge; rarely, if ever, 
of the advocate." 



58 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 







A Brief History of An- 
cient Peoples. 

With an acfount of tlicirmnmunents, 
literatuio, and iiiniuurs. 340 ]iuge3 
12ino. rrofiisi'ly ilhistiafeil. 

In this work the imhtical history, 
wliich occui)ies nearly, if not ail, 
the ordinary school text, is oontlenscil 
to tlie salient and essential facts, in 
order to j,nve room for a clear outline 
of the literature, irli^'ion, architecture, 
character, hahits, «fcc,., of each nation. 
Surely it is as inijjortant to V\w\\ some- 
tliiiKj almut riato as all about Ctesar, 
and to learn liow the ancients wrote 
their Ixioks as how they fought their 
battles. 

The chai)trrs Oii Maimers and Cus- 
toms and the Scenes in Heal Life rejire- 
sent the p("i|ile of history as men and 
women subject to the sjiUie wants, hojies 
and fears as ourselves, and so brinR the distant past near to us. The S-eiies, wliit h are 
intended ow/,/ f„r r>-n.i;„n,^vc the result of a ran-ful study of the unciuallcd cr.llections of 
monuments in the London and JJerlin Museums, of the ruins in Rome ami romjieii, and 
of the latest authorities on the (hunestic life of ancient i>eniilcs. Tliou-h intentioTially 
written in a serTii-romantii- style, they are accurate i)icturcs of what »/->//// have ocrurre(( 
ami sf)me fif them are simph- tran-<criptions of the details sculptured in Assyrian 
alabaster or jjuiut«d on Egyptian walls. 

29 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



H ISTOR Y — Co7itinued. 

The extracts made from the sacred books of the East are not specimens of their style 
and teachings, but only gems selected often from a mass of matter, much of which would 
be absui-d, meaningless, and even revoUing. It has not seemed best to cumber a book 
like this with selections conveying no moral lesson. 

Ihe numerous cross-references, the abundant dates in parenthesis, the pronunciation 
of the names in the Index, the choice reading references at the close of each general 
subject, and the novel Historical Recreations in the Appendix, will be of service to 
teacher and pupil alike. 

Though designed primarily for a text-book, a large class of persons — general readers, 
who desire to know something about the jirogress of historic criticism and ^iie recent 
discoveries made among the resurrected monuments of the East, but have no leisure to 
read the ponderous volumes of Brugsch, Layard, Grote, Monimsen, and Ihne — will find 
this volume just what they need. 



Front Homer B. Sprague, Heaf }fastfr 
Girls' High School, H eit Ntwtoa St., Bos- 
t-'H, Miss. 
" 1 beg to recommend in strong terms 

the adoption of Barnes's ' History of 



Ancient Peojiles ' as a text-book. It is 
about as nearly perfect as could be 
hnpud for. The ado])tion would give 
great relish to the study of Ancient 
History." 




HE Brief History of France. 



By the author of the " Bri-^f United States," 
with all the attractive features of that i>opu- 
lar work (which sec) and new ones of its own. 

It IS Vjelieved ti:nt the History of France 
has never before been presented in such 
brief compass, and this is effected without 
sacrificing one particle of interest. The book 
reads like a romance, and, while drawing the 
student by an irresistible fascination to his 
impresses the great outlines indelibly upon the memory. 



30 



rHE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



\\lS'Y()\Vi —Contiimcil. 



Mediaeval and Modern 



Barnes's Brief History of 
Peoples. 

The success of the History of Ancient Peo|)les was immediate and great. A History 
of Mediaival and Modern History, uiion tiie same ]dan, was the natural sequence. 
Those te^icliers who usetl the lornier wdl be ghid to know tliat the latter book is now 
ready, and classes can go right on without clianging authors. 

The New York School Journal says : 



The tine-print notes . . . work a lield 
not widely developed until Green's His- 



tory of English People appeared, relating 
to the description of real, every-day life 
of tlie people." 



This work distinguishes between the period of the world's history from the Fall of 
Rome (a.d. 470) to the Capture of Constantinojde (ad. KAr.), —about one thousand 
yeai-s, called " Middle Ages," — and the period from the end of the fifteenth century to 
tlie i>resent time. It covers tlie entire time chronologically and by the order of events, 
giving one hundred and twenty-two fine illustrations aiid sixteen elaborate maj^s. 




[Illustration from Barnes's Brief- History 

Series] 

The subject ha.s never before been so in- 
terestingly treated in brief compass. The Po- 
litical History of eacli natinn is first given, 
then the Manners and Customs of the Peoj)le. 
A better idea of tlie growth of civilization and 
the cliangps in the cotidition of mankind can- 
not be found elsewhere. The book is fitted 
for private reading, as well as schools. 

31 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



HISTORY — Continued. 

Barnes's Brief General History. 

Comprising Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern Peoples. 

The special fka tures ok this book are as follows : — 

The General History contains 600 pages. Of this amount, 350 pages are devoted to 
the political history, and '250 pages to the civilization, manners, and customs, etc. The 
Jatter are in separate chapters, and if the time of tlie teacher is limited, may be <mxitted. 
The class can thus take only the political portion when desired. The teacher wdl have, 
however, the satisfaction of l<no\ving that, such is the fascinating treatment of the 
civilization, literature, etc., those chapters will be carefully read by the pupils ; and, on 
the principle that knowledge acquired from love alone is the most vivid, will probably 
be the best-remembered part of the boolc This portion of the book is therefore all 
clc^r <^nin. 

The'^Black-board Analysis. See p. 314 as an example of this marked feature. 

The exquisite Illustrations, unrivalled by any text-book. See pp. 9, 457, and 5S2, as 
samples of tlie 240 cuts ((Hitained in this beautiful work. 

The peculiar Summaries, and valuable lists of Reading References. See p. 417. 

The numerous and excellent colored Maps. These are su full as to answer lor an 
extensive course of collateral reading, and are consequently useful lor reference outside 
of cl;is--work. See pp. 29^ and 317. 

The Scenes in Real Life, which are the result of a careful study of the collections 
and uionunicnts in the London, Paris, and Berlin museums, and the latest authorities 
upon the domestic life of the people of former times. See pp. 3S-39. This scene — 
a Lord of the IVth Dynasty — is mainly a transcription of details to be found painted 
on tlie walls of Egyotian tombs. 

The chapters on Civilization that attempt to give some idea of the Monuments, Arts, 
Literature, Edui'ation, and M uiners and Customs of the different nations. See pp 171, 
180, 276, 279, 472. and 514. 

The admirable Genealogical Tables interspersed throughout the text. See pp. 340 
and 404. 

Tlie Foot-Notes that are packed full of anecdotes, biographies, pleasant information, 
and sugj,cstive comments. As an illustration of these, take the description of the 
famous sieges of Haarlem and Leyden, during the Dutch War of Independence, pp. 446 
and 448. 

The peculiar method of treating Early Roman History, by putting in the text the 
facts as accepted by critics, and, in the notes below, the legends. See ]>p. 205-6. 

The exceedingly useful plan of running collateral history in parallel columns, as for 
example on ii. 361, taken from the Hundred Years' War. 

The Historical Recreations, so valuable in arousing the interest of a class. See 
p. xi from the Appendix. 

The striking oi)ening of Modern History on pp. 423-4. 

The interesting Style, that sweeps the reader along as hy the fascination of a novel. 
The pupil insensibly actiuires a taste for historical readinc:, and foro-ets the tediousness 
of the ordinary lessnu in jierusing the thrilling story of the past. Sec pp. 251-2. 

Special attention is called to the chapter entitled Rise of Modern Nations, — 
England, France, and Germany. The characteristic feature in the medi;vval history of 
each of these nations is made prominent, (n.) After the Four Conquests of Endand, 
the central idea in the growth of that people was the Development of Constitutional 
Liberty. ('>.) Tlie feature of French history was the conquest of the great vassals by 
the king, the triumph of royalty over feudalism, and the final consolidation of the 
scattered fiefs into one grand monarchy, (o.) The characteristic of German history was 
disunion, emphasized by the lack of a central capital ci*y. and by an elective rather than 
an hereditary monarchy. The struggle of the Crown with its powerful vassals was the 
same as in France, but developed no national sentiment, and ended in the establishment 
of semi-indejiendent dukedoms. 

These three thoughts furni.*h the beginner with as many threads on which to string 
lilie otherwise isolated facts of this bewildering period. 



32 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



IIISTOKY — Continmd. 

Barnes's Brief History of Greece. 

:Jt)4 piigt-s. l:2iiiu. Cloth, llliisinucd. 

Tliis l)()ok WMS piinijuilv jjiipaad lor th'; CliatMiiqim Course m History, but is we i 
ndapteil to ilie wains oi all s udtiits. It rousists of the chapters on the Political llistorv 
jiMil Ci ilizaiioii of Gr.epe, in Barnes's "Brief History of Ancient I'.oples," and a iiuhidlt 
of (ipp:-()ii iale selections foiu the works of such historians as Cnrtins, Grote, ThirlwalL 
Sun h, l''vt'e, Cox, Schniit/., llawliiison, and others. By the study of tliis Itttle hook the 
read.r will u'ain a \v\\ sniistantial idea of the history of Greece, in whose career tlie rest ot 
till- wiiild is so lar'_'fly co icerned. 




[Spccmieu lllustrat 



iies's Bnef-Uistury Series.] 



Kummer's Epitome of English History. 

Willi Questions for Kxainination. By S. Airnes Kunniicr, revised by A. M. Chandler of 
Ih ; Mdgnvorth Schn«l, Baltimore, Md 150 pajres. l2nio. Cloth. 

Th! success of the first edition of this hook in s(!V(;if(i s-hools leads to its reproduction 
with r-.d;litions. If, i-» not .lesin:n d to supersede ihc study of more compreheiisi\ e texr-l»M)\.s 
of history, hut merely to act as a liaudmaideu to them, by presenting in a condensed form 
♦,he principal facts and dates. 



SHEPARD'S SYSTEMATIC MINERAL RECORD. 

With a synopsis of terms and ehe.niical reactions used in deserihing minerals 1 re- 
pared for iiistrueUtrs and students in miueraloe'y. Adapted to any text-book. 24 pagwj 
of dedcriiitive and cxiduuatory text, and 7a blank pages for record. 

34 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 




GENERAL HISTORY. 

Monteith's Youth's History of the United States. 

A History of the United States (or beginners. It is arranged upon the oate<'hcti('al ]ilan, 
with illustrative majxs and engravings, review questions, dates in ]iarentheses(that their 
study may be optional with the younger class of learners), and interesting biograjihica? 
sketches of all persons who have been prominently identified with the history of our 
country. 

Willard's United States. School and Uuiversily Editions. 

The plan of this standard work is clironologically exliibited in front of the titlepage. 
The maps and sketches are found useful assistants to tlie meninry ; and dates, usually 
so difficult to remember, are so systematically arranged as in a great degree to obviate 
the difficulty. Caudor, iuipartiality, and accuracy are the distinguishing features of 
the narrative portion. 

Willard's Universal History. New Edition. 

The most valuable features of the " United States " are reproduced in this. The 
peculiarities of the work are its great conciseness and the ju'oniinence given to the 
chronological order of events. The margin marks each successive era with great dis- 
tinctness, so that the pupil retains not only the event but its time, and thus fixes the 
order of history firmly and usefully in his mind. Mrs. Willard's books are constantly 
revised, and at all times written up to embrace important historical events of recent 
date. Professor Arthur Gilman lias edited the last twenty-five years to 1882. 

Lancaster's English History. 

By the Master of the Stoughton Grammar School, Boston. The most practical of the 
"brief books." Though short, it is not a bare and uninteresting outline, but contains 
enough of explanation and detai 1 to make intelligible the cansf. ami effct of events. 
Their relations to the history and develojiment of the American people is made specially 
j-rominent. 

"Willis's Historical Reader. 

Being Collier's Great Events of History adapted to American schools. This rare 
epitome of general history, remarkable for its charming style and judicious selection of 
events on which the destinies of nations have turned, lias been skilfully manipulated 
by Professor Willis, with as few changes as would bring the United StJites into its jiroper 
position in the historical perspective. As reader or text-book it has tew equals and no 
superior. 

Berard's History of England. 

By an authoress well known for the success of her History of the United States. 
The social life of the English peo})le is felicitously interwoven, as in fact, with the civil 
and military transactions of the realm. 

Ricord's History of Rome. 

Possesses the charm of an attractive romance. The fables with which this history 
abounds are introduced in such a way as not to d<^ceive the inexperienced, while adding 
materially to the value of the work as a reliable index to the character and institutiongj 
as well as the historv of the Roman people. 

35 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 

HISTORY — Continuea. 

Hanna's Bible History. 

The only coiiipeiidinin of Jiible narrative which affords a connected and chronologicaj 
view of the important e\'ents there recorded, divested of all sui)ertluoiis detail. 

Summary of History ; American, French, and English. 

A well-jiroportioned outline of loading events, condensing the substance of tlic more 
3xtensive text-books in common use into a series of statements so brief, that every 
word may be committed to memory, and yet so comprehensive that it presents an 
accurate though general view of the whole continuous life of nations. 

Marsh's Ecclesiastical Historv, 

Alfoiiling the History of the Church in all a^^es, with accounts of the pagan world 
during the biblical periods, and the character, rise, and progress of all religions, as well 
as the vari(Mis sects of the worshippers of Christ. The work is entirely non-sectarian, 
though strictly catholic. A separate volume contains carefully prepared questions for 
class use. 

Mill's History of the Ancient Hebrews. 

With valuable Clironological Charts, jircjiarcd bv I'rot'essor Kdwards of N. Y. This 
is a su<'cinvt account of the chosen people of God to the time of the destruction of 
Jerusaiem. Complete in one volume. 

Topical History Chart Book. 

By Mis.s Ma 1*. Whitcomb. To be used in connection with a>n/ History, /Indent or 
Modern, instead of the ordinary blank book for summary. It embodies the names of 
conJnii/iornr'/ rulers from the earliest to the ))resent time, with blanks under each, ia 
which the i)upil may write tlie summary of the life of the ruier. 

Oilman's First Steps in General History. 

A "suggestive outline" of rare compactness. Eacli country is treated by itself, and 
the United .States receive special attention. Freciucnt inajis, contemporary events in 
tables, references to standard works for fuller details, and a minute Index" constitute 
the " Illustrative A]>paratus.'' From no other work that we know of can so succinct a 
view of the world's history be obtained. Considering the necessary limitation of space, 
the style is surprisingly vivid, and at times even ornate. In all respects a charming, 
though not the less iirictical, text-book. 

Baker's Brief History of Texas. 
Dimitry's History of Louisana. 
Alison's Napoleon First. 

The history of Kurope from 1788 to 181.^.. By Archibald Alison. Abridged by Edward 
S. Gould. One vol., Svo, with appendix, questions, and maps. 550 i>ages. 

Lord's Points of History. 

The salirnt jioints in the histnry of the world arranged catechetically for class use or 
for review and examination of teacher or pupil. By .lohn Lord, LL.D. 12mo, 300 
pages. 

Carrington's Battle Maps and Charts of the American 
Revolution. 

Topograpliiial Maps an<l Chronological Charts of every battle, with 3 steel portraits 

of Washington. Svu, dnth. 

Condit's History of the English Bible. 

For theological and historical students this book .'jas an intrinsic value. It cives the 
h;sU)ry of all the Knglish translations down to the jiresent time, together with a careiui 
review of their influence upon English literature and language. 

3G 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



DRA\¥ING. 

BARNES'S POPULAR DRAWING SERIES. 

Based upon the experience of the most successful teachers of drawing in the United 
Rfales. 

The Primary Course, consisting of a manual, ten caixls, and tlu-ee primary 
drawing hooks. A, B,aiiil C. 

Intermediate Course. Four numbers and a manual. 

Advanced Course. Four numbers and a manual. 

Instrumental Course. Four numbeis and a manual. 

'iliti luicriucduttu, Advautt'd, and Instrumental Courses are furnished either in book 
or card Ibrm at tlie same prices. The books contaiu tlie usual blanks, with the unusual 
advantage of opening Irom the pujiil, — placing tlie copy directly in frout and above 
the blank, tlius occuijying but little desk-room. The cartls are in the end more econom- 
ical than the books, if used in connection with the patent blank folios that accompany 
this series. 

Tlie cards are arranged to be bound (or tied) in the folios and removed at pleasure. 
The pujiil at tlie end of each number has a comiilete Itook, containing ouly his own 
work, while the copies are preserved and inserted in another fol.o ready for use in the 
next class. 

Patent Blank Folios. No. 1. Adapted to Intermediate Course. No. 2. Adapted 
to Advanced and lusiiumeutal Courses. 

ADVANTAGES OF THIS SERIES. 
The Plan and Arrangement. — The examples are so aiTanged that teachers and 

fuj)ils can see, at a glance, how they are to be treated and where they are to tie copied, 
n this system, copying and designing do not receive all the attention. The plan is 
broader in its aims, dealing with drawing as a branch of common-school instruction, 
a»d giving it a wide educational value. 

Correct Methods. — In this system the pupil is led to rely ujion himself, and not 
upon delusive mechanical aids, as printed guide-marks, &c. 

One of the principal ol)jects of anj' good course in freehand drawing is to educate the 
eye to estimate location, form, and size. A system which weakens the motive or re- 
moves the necessity of thuikhig is false in theory and ruinous in i)ractice. The object 
shoidd be to educate, not cram ; to develop the intelligence, not teach tricks. 

Artistic Effect. — The beauty of the examples is not destroyed by crowding the 
pages with useless and badly printed text. The Manuals contain all necessary 
instruction. 

Stages of Development. — Many of the examples are accompanied by diagrams, 
showing the diticrenT stages (jf development. 

Lithographed Examples. — The examples are printed in imitation of pencil 
drawing (^not in hai'(i, blacK hues) that the puiiil's work may resen;ble them. 

One Term's Work. —Each book contains what can be accomplished in an average 
term, and no more. Thus a ])i\\n\. fi nishes one book before beginning another. 

Quality — not Quantity. — Success in drawing depends upon the aniountof thought 
exert'iscd liy the pupil, and not upon the large number of examples drawn. 

Designing. — Elementary design is more skilfully taught in this system than by 
any other. In addition to the instruction given in the books, the i:)upil will tind printed 
on the insides of the covers a variety of beautiful patterns. 

Enlargement and Reduction. — The practice of enlarging and reducing from 
copies is not commenced until the pupil is well advanced in the course and therefore 
better able to cope with this difficult feature in drawing. 

Natural Forms. —This is the only course that gives at convenient intervals easy 
and luogrcssive exercises in the drawing of natural forms. 

Economy. — By the patent binding described above, the copies need not be thrown 
aside when a book is filled out, but are jireserved in perfect condition for future use. 
The blank books, only, will have to be i>urchased after the first introduction, thus effect- 
ing a saving of more tlian half in the usual cost of drawing-ljooks. 

Manuals for Teachers. — The Manuals accompanying this series contain jiractical 
instructions for conducting drawing in the class-room, with definite directions for draw- 
ing each of the examples in the books, instructions for designing, model and object 
drawing, drawing from natural forms, &c. 

38 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 

DRAWING — Continued. 

Chapman's American Drawing-Book. 

The stimiaiil Aiiicrican tixt-liook an<l authority in all hraiicliHS of art. A compilation 
of art princijiles. A manual lor the auiateur, and basis of study for the prot'essionnJ 
artist. Adapted for schools and i)rivate instruction. 

Contents. — " Any one who can Learn to Write can I.earn to Draw." — Primary In- 
jtruction in Drawin;,'- — Rudiments of Drawing the Human ' Head. — Rudiments in 
Drawing the Human Figure. — Rudiments of Drawing. — The Elements of Geometry. -- • 
rerspective. — Of Studying and Sketcliing fron) Nature. — Oi Painting. — Etching and 
Engraving — Of Modelling. — Of Composition — .Xdviceto the American Art-Stucleuc. 

The work is of course magnificently illustrated with all the original designs. 

Chapman's Elementary Drawing-Book. 

A proL,'ressive course of practical exercises, or a tc.\t-l)ook for the training of the 
eye and hand. It contains the elements from the larger work, and a copy should he in 
tlie hands of every jtujtil ; while a copy of the " American Drawing- Book," named above. 
Bliould l)e at hand for reference by the class. 

Clark's Elements of Draw^ing. 

A complete course in this graceful art, from the first rudiments of outline to the 
finished sketches of landscape and scenery. 

Allen's Map-Drawing and Scale. 

This method iiitroduies a new era in map-di-awing, for the following reasons : 1. It 
is a system. This is its greatest merit. — 2. It is easily understood and taught.— 
3. The eye is trained to exact measurement by the use of a scale. — 4. By no sjiecial 
effort of the memory, distance and comparative size are fixed in the mind. — 5. It dis- 
cards useless constructi(m of lines. — G. It can be taught by any teacher, even though 
there may have been no previous jtractice in map-drawing — 7. Any pupil old enough 
to study geograjihy can learn by this system, in a short time, to draw accurate maps. 
— 8. The system is not the result of theory, but comes directly from the school-room. 
It has been thoroughly and successfully tested there, with all gravies of pupils. — 9. It 
is economical, as it requires uo mapping plates. It gives the ijupil the ability of rapidly 
drawing accurate uiaps. 

FINE ARTS. 

Hamerton's Art Essays (Atlas Series): — 

No. 1. The Practical "Work of Painting. 

With portrait of Ruben.s. 8vo. Paper covers. 

No. 2. Modern Schools of Art- 
Including American, Englisli, and Continental Painting. 8vo. Paper covers. 

Huntington's Manual of the Fine Arts. 

A careful manual of i:ist rii<t ion in tlie history of art, ni> to the present time. 

Boyd's Kames' Elements of Criticism. 

The best edition of the best W(jrk on art and literary criticism ever nrodacfd Ir 
Engli.sh. 

Benedict's Tour Through Europe. 

A valuable companion for anyone wishing to visit the galleries and sigcta of tho 
continent of Euro]>e, as well as a charming book of travels. 

Dwight's Mythology. 

.\ knowledge of mythf)logy is necessary to an appreciation of ancient art. 

Walker's World's Fair. 

The industrial and arlistie disiday -it the Ccut«nuiul Exhibitiou. 

40 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



BOOK-KEEPING. 

Powers's Practical Book-keeping. 
Powers's Blanks to Practical Book-keeping. 

A Treatise on iJook-keeping, for Public Schools and Academies. By Millard R 
Powers, M. A. This work is designed to impart instruction upon the science of accounts, 
as applied to mercantile business, and it is believed that more knowledge, and tliat, too, 
of a more practical nature, can be gained by the plan introduced in this work, than by 
<any other jmbllshed. 

Folsom's Logical Book-keeping. 
Folsom's Blanks to Book-keeping. 

This treatise embraces tlie interesting and important discoveries of Professor Folsom (of 
the Albany " Bryant & Stratton College "), the jiartial enunciation of which in lectures 
and otherwise has attracted so much attention in circles interested in ctmimerciai 
education. 

After studying business phenomena for many years, he has arrived at the positive 
laws and principles that underlie the whole subject of accounts ; linds that the science 
is based in value as a generic term : that value divides into two classes with varied 
species ; that all the exchanges of values are reducible to nine equations ; and that all 
the results of all these exchanges are limited to thirteen in number. 

As accounts have been universally taught hitherto, without setting out from a radical 
analysis or definition of values, the science has been kept in great obscurity, and been 
made as difficult to impart as to acquire. On the new theory, liowever, these obstacles 
are chiefly removed. In reading over the first part of it, in which the governing laws 
and principles arc discussed, a person with ordinary intelligence will obtain a fair con- 
cejnion of the double-entry process of accounts. But when he comes to study thoroughly 
these laws and principles as there enunciated, and works out the examples and memo- 
randa which elucidate the thirteen results of business, tlie student will neither fail in 
readily acquiring the science as it is, nor in becoming able intelligently to apply it in 
the interpretation of bu.sine.ss 

Smith and Martin's Book-keeping. 
Smith and Martin's Blanks. 

This work is by a practical teacher and a jiractical book-keeper. It is of a thoronghly 
popular class, and will be welcomed by every one who loves to see theory and practice 
combined in an easy, concise, and methodical form. 

The single-entry portion is well adapted to supply a want lelt in nearly all other 
treatirses, which seem to be prepared mainly for the use of wholesale merchants ; 
leaving retailers, mechanics, tarmeis, &c. , who transact the greater portion of the 
business of the country, without a guide. The work is also couimended, on this 
account, for general use in young ladies' seminaries, where a thorough grounding 
in the simpler form of accounts wUl be invaluable to the future housekeepers of the 
nation. 

The treatise on double-entry book-keeping coinl>ines all the advan+ages of the 
mo.st recent methods with the utmost simplicity of application, thus affoitling the 
pupil all the advantages of actual experience in the counting-house, and giving a 
clear comprehension of the entire subject through a judicious course of mercantile 
transactions. 



PRACTICAL BOOK-KEEPING. 

Stone's Post-Office Account Book. 

By Micah H. Stone. For record of Box Rents and Postages. Three si^es always in 
stock. 64, lOS, and 204 pages. 

INTEREST TABLES. 

Brooks's Circular Interest Tables. 

To calculate simple and compound interest for any amount, from 1 cent to $1,000, at 
eurrent rates from 1 day to 7 years. 

41 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 

DR. STEELE'S ONE-TERM SERIES, 
IN ALL THE SCIENCES. 

Steele's 14-Weeks Course in Chemistry. 
Steele's 14-Weeks Course in Astronomy. 
Steele's 14-Vv'^eeks Course in Physics. 
Steele's 14-Weeks Course in Geology. 
Steele's 14-Weeks Course in Physiology. 
Steele's 14-W^eeks Course in Zoology. 
Steele's 14-Weeks Course in Botany. 

Our text-books in these studies are, .is a general thing, dull and uninteresting. 
They contain from 400 to 600 pages of dry facts and unconnected details. They abound 
in tliat wliich tlie student cannot learn, much less remember. The pupil commences 
the study, is confused by tlie tir.e ])rint and coarse ])rint, and neither knowing exactly 
what to learn nor what to hasten over, is crowded tlirough the single term generally 
assigned to each brandi, and frequently comes to the close without a definite and exact 
idea of a single scientific principle. 

Steele's " Fourteen- Weeks Courses " contain only that which every well-informed per- 
son should know, while all that which concerns only tlie professional scientist is omitted. 
The language is clear, simple, and interesting, and the illustrations bring the subject 
within the range of home life and daily experience. They give such of the general 
principles and the prominent facts as a jiupil can make familiar as houseliold word« 
within a single t«rm. Tlie type is large and open ; there is no fine print to annoy ; 
the cuts are copies of genuine experiments or natural phenomena, and are of fine 
execution. 

In fine, by a system of condensation peculiarly his own, the author reduces each 
branch to tlie limits of a single term of study, while sacrificing nothing that is essential, 
and notliing that is usually retained from the study of the larger manuals in common 
use. Thus the student has rare oi)portunity to economize his lime, or rather to employ 
that which he has to the best advantiige. 

A notable feature is the author's channing "style," fortified by an enthusiasm over 
his subject in which the student will not fail to partake. Believing tliat Natural 
Science is full of fascination, he has moulded it into a form that attracts the attention 
and kindles the enthusiasm of the pupil. 

The recent editions contain the author's " Practical Questions " on a plan never 
before attemjtted in scientific text-books. These are questions as to the nature and 
cause of common phenomena, and are not directly answered in the text, the design 
being to test and promote an intelligent use of the student's knowledge of the foregoing 
principles. 

Steele's Key to all His Works. 

This w(irk is mainly compo.scd of nnswors to tlic Practical Questions, and solutions of th« 
prohhMiis, ill theauthor's celebraU'd " P'ourteen-Weeks Courses " in the several sciences, 
with many hints to teai-liers, minor tables, &c. Should be on every teacher's desk. 

Prof. J." Dorman Steele is an indefatigable student, as well as author, and his Iwokg 
have reached a fabulous circulation. It is .safe to say of his books that they have 
accomplished more tangible and better results in the class-room than any other ever 
offered to American schools, and have been translated into more languages for foreign 
sctiouLs. They are even prodaced in .raiiMd type for the bUud. 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 

NATURAL SCIENCE — Conii/iited. 

TEMPERANCE PHYSIOLOGY. 

Steele's Abridged Physiology, for Common Schools. 
Steele's Hygienic Physiology, for High Schools. 

With especial reference to alcoholic driuks and narcotics. Adapted from " Fourteen 
Weeks' Course in Human Physiology." By J. Donnau Steele, Ph.D. Edited and 
indorsed for the use of schools (in accordance with the recent legislation uimn this 
subject) 'oy the Dei)artment of Temperance Instruction of the W. C. T. U. of the Uuited 
States, uader the directiou of Mrs. Mary H. Hunt, superintendent. 

This new work contains all the excellent and popular features that have given Dr. 
Steele's Physiology so wide a circulation. Among these, are the following; 

1. Colored Lithographs to illustrate the general facts in Physiology. 

2. Black-board Analysis at the beginning of each chapter. These have been 
found (if .ireat service in chiss-work, especially in review and examination. 

3. The Practical Questions at the close of each chai^ter. These are now too well 
known to I'equire any explanation. 

4. Tlie carefully jirepared sections u]ion the Physiological Action of Alcohol, 
Tobacco, Opium, etc. These are scattered through the book as each organ is treated. 
This subject is examined from a purely scientific stand-point, and represents the latest 
teachings at home and abroad. While tliere is no attempt to incoi'porate a temperance 
lecture in a school-book, yet the terrible effects of these " Stimulants and Narcotics," 
especially upon the young, are set forth all the more impressively, since the lesson is 
taught merely by the iircsentation of facts that lean toward no one's prejudices, and 
admit of no answer or escape. 

5. Throughout the book, there are given, in text and foot-note, ex]ieriments that can 
be jierformed by teacher and pupil, and which, it is hoiked, will induce some easy dis- 
sections' to be made in every class, and lead to that constant ]-eference of all subjects to 
Nature herself, which is so invaluable in scientiiic study. 

(5. The collection of recent discoveries, interesting facts, etc., iu numerous foot- 
notes. 

7. The unusual space given to the subject of Ventilation, which is now attracting 
so mn(;h attention throughout the C(mntry. 

8. The text is brought up to the level of the new Physiological views. The division 
into short, pithy paragrajihs ; the bold i)aragrai>h headings ; the clear, large type ; the 
simple presentation of each subjct ; the interesting style that begets in every child a 
love (^f the study, and the beautiful cuts, each having a full scientific description and 
nomenclature, so as to ju'esent the thing before the pupil without cumbering the text 
with the dry details, — all these indicate the work of the practical teacher, and will be 
appreciated in every school-room. 

Child's Health Primer. 

For the youngest scholars. 12mo, cloth, illustrated. 

Hygiene for Young People. 

Prepared under the supervision of Mrs. Mary H. Hunt, Superintendent of th« 
Department of Scientific Instruction of the " Women's National Christian Temperanc* 
Union." Examined and approved by A. B. Palmer, M.D., University of Michigan. 

Jarvis's Elements of Physiology. 
Jarvis's Physiology and La"ws of Health. 

Tlie only books extant which approach this subject with a proper view of the true 
object of teaching Physiology in schools, viz., that scholars may know how to take care 
of their own health. In bold contrast with the abstract v4«a/or?ue.s, which children 
leani as they would Greek or Latin (and forget as soon), to discipline the mind, are these 
text-books, "using the science as a secondary consideration, and only so far as is neces- 
sary foi the comprehension of the laws oj health. 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL BOOKS. 



THE NEW GANOT. 

Introductory Course of Natural Philosophy. 

This U)i>k was orijjinally edited from (Jaiiol's " I'opular Pliysies," liy William G. 
Pet'k, LL. 1)., I'rofessui" ut' Mallieiiialies and Astruiioiiiy, Culuiubia (.(41ege, and of 
Meehanies in tlie fjchool of Mines. It has leecntly been revised by Levi S. Bur- 
bank, A. M., hite Principal of Warren Academy, Woburn, Mass., and James I. Hanson, 
A.M., Principal of the High School, Woburn, Mass. 

Of elementary works those of M. Ganot stand jire-eminent, not only as popular 
treati.ses, but as thoroughly scientitic exjjositions of the principles of IMiysics. His 
" Traite de Physique " has not only met with unprecedented success in Fia7icc, but lias 
been extensively used in the preparation of the best works on Pliysics that have been 
Issued from the American jiress. 

In addition to the "Traite de Physique,'' which is intended for the use of colleges 
and higher institutions of learning, M. Ganot published this more elementary work, 
adapted to the use of scliools and academies, in which lie faitlifully jire.served tlie 
prominent features and all the scientilie accuracy of the larger work. It is charcter- 
ilted by a well-l»alanced distribution of subjects, a logical development of scientihc 
principles, and a remarkable clearness of definition and explanation. In addition, it is 
profusely illustrated with beautifully exei-uted engravings, admirably calculated to 
convey to the niiml of the student a clear conception of the iirinciples unfolded Their 
completeness and .accuracy arc such as to enable tlie teacher to dispense with much of 
the apparatus usually employed in teaching the elements of Physical Science. 

After several years of great po|)ularity the American publishers have brought this 
import;int book tlioroughly u[) to the times. Tlie death of the accomplished educator. 
Professor Burbank, tooic i)l.ace before he had completed his work, and it was then 
taken in iiand by his friend. Professor Hanson, who was familiar with his plans, and 
iids ably and satisfactorily brouglit the work to completion. 

The essential characteristics and general plan of the book have, so far as possible, 
been retiined, but at the same time many ])arts have been entirely rewritten, much 
new matter added, a large number of new cuts introduced, and the whole treatise 
thoroughly revised and brought into harmony with the present advanced stage of sci- 
entific discovery. 

Among the new features designed to .aid in teaching the subject-matter .are the 
summaries of topics, which, it is thought, will be found very convenient iu short 
reviews. 

As many teachers prefer to jirepare their own questions on the text, and many do no*- 
have time to spend in the solution of problems, it h.as been deemed expedient to insert 
both the review ([uestions and problems at the end of the volume, to be used or not at 
the discretion of the instructor. 

jects of which it treats. That work w.as 
inteaded for higher institutitms of learn- 
ing, and Mr. Ganot prcpaier' a tiiore 
elenientarj' work for schools .and acade- 
mies. It is as scientifically accurate as 
the larger work, and is chaiacterized by 
a logical development of scientific jirinci- 
]>les, by clearness of definition and expl.a- 
iiation, by a jiropcr distribution of sub- 
jects, and by its ailmirable engravings. 
We here have Ganot's work enhanced in 
vakie by the labors of Professor Peck and of 
Messrs. Burbank ;ind Hanson, and brought 
up to our own times. Tlie essential char- 
acteristics of Ganot's work have been re- 
tainetl, but mucli r)f the book h;is been 
rewritten, and many new cuts liave Wen 
introduced, made necessary by the i>rog- 
ress of scientific discovery. The short 
reviews, the questions on the text, and 
uhe jirobleiiis givt-n for s<iliiti'>:i are desir- 
able additions to a work of this kind, and 
will give the book increased popularity. * 



From the Chiirchman. 

" No dep.artment of science has under- 
gone so many improvements and clianges 
in the last qu<arter of a century as that of 
natural pliilosoi)liy. So many and so im- 
portant have been the discoveries and 
inventions in every bnanch of it that 
everything seems change<l 'out its funda- 
mental jirinciples. Ganot has chapter 
U|)on chapter upon subjects that were not 
BO much as known by name to Olmsted ; 
and here we have Ganot, f^rst edited by 
Professor Peck, and afterward revised by 
the late Mr. Burbank and Mr. Hanson. No 
elementary works ujion philosophy have 
been superior to tho.se of Ganot, either as 
pojmlar tri>atises or as scientili(! exposi- 
tions of the princijiles of jihysics, .and 
his ' Traite de Physique ' has not only had 
a great success in Frame. )>ut has been 
freely used in this country in the prepa- 
ratiou of American books upon the Kub- 



45 



THE NATIONAL SEKIBS OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



FAMILIAR SCIENCE. 

Norton & Porter's First Book of Science. 

Sets f )rtli tlie piinciples of Natural Pljilosdpliy, Astri)iinniy, Cliemistry, Physiology, 
and Geology, on the catefhetii-al i)lan for priniuiy classes an I beginners. 

Chambers's Treasury of Knowledge. 

Progressive lessoTis upon — .A'r.4, common things which lie most immediately around 
us, and first attract the attention of the young mind ; second, common objects from tlia 
Iniineral, animal, and vegetable kingdoms, manufactured articles, and riiscellaneoua 
substances ; third, a systematic view of nature under tlie various sciences. May be 
used as a reader or text-book. 

Monteith's Easy Lessons in Popular Science. 

This book combines within its covers more attractive features for the study of science 
by children than any other book published. It is a reading book, spelling book, com- 
position book, drawing book, geography, history, book on botany, zoology, agricul- 
ture, manufactures, commerce, and natural philosoiihy. All these subjects are ])resented 
in a simple and effetrtive style, such as would be adopted by a good teacher on an 
excursion with a class. The class are supposed to be taking excur.sions, v.ith the help 
of a large jiictorial chart of geography, which can be suspended before them in the 
school-room. A key of the chart is inserted in every copy of the book. With thia 
book the science of common or familiar things can be tiiught to beginners. 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY- 

Norton's First Book in Natural Philosophy. 
Peck's Elements of Mechanics. 

A suitable introduction to Bartlett's higher treatises on Mechanical Philosophy, and 
adequate in itself lor a complete academical course. 

Bartlett's Analytical Mechanics. 
Bartlett's Acoustics and Optics. 

A complete system of Collegiate Philosophy, by Prof W. H. C. Bartlett, of West 
Point Military Academy. 

Steele's Physics. 

Peck's Ganot. 

GEOLOGY. 

Page's Elements of Geology. 

A volume of Chambers's Educational Course. Practical, simple, and eminently 

calculated to make the study interesting. 

Steele's Geology. 

CHEMISTRY. 

Porter's First Book of Chemistry. 
Porter's Principles of Chemistry. 

The above are Avidely known as the productions of one of the most eminent scientific 
men of America. The extreme simplicity in the method of presenting the science, while 
exhaustively treated, has excited universal commendation. 

Gregory's Chemistry (Organic and Inorganic). 2 vols. 

The science exhaustively treated. For colleges and medical students. 

Steele's Chemistry. 

47 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 

NATURAL SCIENCE — Co/itinu«^. 

BOTANY. 

Wocxi's Object-Lessons in Botany. 
Wood's American Botanist and Florist. 
Wood's New Class-Book of Botany. 

Tilt' stamlard toxt-liooks ot the Uiiitud States in tliis dui.artment. In style they are 
simple, popular, and lively ; in arrangement, easy and natural ; in descriiJtion, graphic 
and scicnti/ie. The Tables for Analysis are reduced to a jiert'eet system. They include 
the flora ol the whole Unit»4d States east ol' the Rocky Mountains, and are well adapted 
to the regions west. 

Wood's Descriptive Botany. 

A coiiij)lete tlora of all jiiaiits growing cast of the Mississiitpi River. 

Wood's Illustrated Plant Record. 

A simple form of blanks for recording observations \\\ tlie field. 

Wood's Botanical Apparatus. 

A jmrtable trunk, containing drying pre's, knife, trowel, microscope, and tweezers, 
and a copy of Wood's " i'lant Record," — the collector's complete outht. 

Willis's Flora of New^ Jersey. 

The most useful book of reference ccr imblished for collectors in all parts of the 
country. It contains also a Botanical Directory, with addresses of living American 
botanists. 

Young's Familiar Lessons in Botany. 

Combining simiilicity of diction with some degree of technical and scientific knowl' 
edge, lor intermediate classes. Specially adapted lor the Southwest, 

Wood & Steele's Botany. 



AGRICULTURE. 

Pendleton's Scientific Agriculture. 

A text-book for colleges and schools; trcais of the following topics: Anatomy and 
Physiology of Plants ; Agricultural Meteorology ; Soils as related to Physics ; (Jhen'iistry 
of the Atmosphere ; of Plants ; of Soils ; Fertilizers and Natural Manures; Animal Nu- 
trition, &c. By E. M. Pendleton, M. 1)., Professor of Agriculture in the Uuivei-sity of 
Georgia. 



From, President A. D. White, Cornell 
University. 

"Dear Sir: I liave examined your 
'Text-lK)ok of Agricultural Science,' and it 
seems to me excellent in view of the i)ur- 
pose it is intended to serve. Many of 
your chapters interested me especially, 
and all parts of the work seem to combine 
scientific instruction with jiractical infor- 
mation in jiroportions dictated by sound 
oommon sense." 



FiOm PRKSIDENT RoBIN-ON, of BrOWTl 

Universiiy. 

" It is scientific in method as well as in 
matter, comprehensive in plan, natural 
and logical in order, comjtact and lucid in 
its statements, and must l)eu.-.eful both as 
a text-book in agri('ultural colleges, and 
as a hand-book for intelligent ])lanters and 
farmers." 



48 



WE NATIONAL SERIES CF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 

NATURAL SCIENCE — Confiuwed. 

ASTRONOMY. 

Peck's Popular Astronomy. 

By Will. G. Peck, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Mathematics, Mechanics, and Astron> 
omy ill Columbia College. 12nio. Cioth. S -0 pages. 

Professor Peck lias here produced a scieutilic work in brief form for colleges, acade- 
mies, and high schools. Teachers wlio do not want an elementary work — like Steele's 
Astronomy, for instance — will find wliat they want in this book. Its discussion of the 
Stars, Solar System, Earth, Moon, Sun and Planets, Eclipses, Tides, Calendars, Planets 
and Satellites, Comets and Meteors, &c , is full and satisfactory. The illustrations are 
numerous and very carefully engrave<l, so the student can gain an accurate comjjrehen- 
sion of the things represented. Professor Peck is wonderfully clear and concise in his 
style of writing, and there is nothing redundant or fdiscure in tliis work. It is intended 
for po])ular as well as class use, and accordingly avoids too great attention to mathe- 
matical ])rocesses, which are introduced in smaller tyjie than the regular text. For 
high.er schools this astronomy is undoubtedly the best text-book yet published. 

Willard's School Astronomy. 

By means of clear and att^acti^'e illustrations, addressing the eye in many cases by 
analogies, careful definitions of all necessary technical terms, a careful avoidance of 
verbiage and imimportant matter, ))articular attention to analysis, and a general adop- 
tion of the simplest methods, Mrs. Willard has made the best and most attractive 
elemciitarii Astronomy extant. 

Mclntyre's Astronomy and the Globes. 

xV comjilete treatise for intermediate classes. Highly a^iproved. 

Bartlett's Spherical Astronomy. 

Tl)c West Point Course, for advanced classes, with applications to the current wants 
of Navigation, Geography, and Chronology. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 

Carlls Child's Book of Natural History. 

lUustr.itin'c tlie animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, with application to the 
arts. For beginners. Beautifully and copiously illustrated. 

Anatomical Technology. Wilder & Gage. 

As applied to the domestic cat For tlie use of students of medicine. 



ZOOLOGY. 



Chambers's Elements of Zoology. 

A complete and comprehensive system of Zoology, adapted for academic instmctioii, 
presenting a systematic view of the animal kingdom as a portion of external nature. 



ROADS AND RAILROADS. 

Gillespie's Roads and Railroads. 

Tenth Edition. Edited by Cady Staley, A.M.. C E 4G4 pages. T2mo. Cloth. 

This boolc has long been and still is the standard manual of tlie ]irinci]iles and jirac- 
tice of Road-making, comprising the location, construction, and improveiiiont of roads 
(common, macadam, ])aved. plank, &c ) and railroads. It was compiled by Wm. 
Gillespie, LL.D., C.E., of Union College. 

49 



THt NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



PHONOGRAPHY. 

Eames's Light-Line Short-Hand. 

This ItKok piTSfiits a practifal plioiictic systi-iii, williout shading. It is prepared ta 
inei-t tlie riMiuironit'iits of business, corresiionding. and verbatim reporting. It is 
especially adapted to the nse of scdioids and colle^'es. It gives a vocabulary of more 
than 4,i)'M words and jihrases. The illustrations are very numerous, and both in 
variety and (piantity are unprecedented. There are 53 p;iges of engraved short-liaiid 
matter for jiraclicc-copies. Tlie book is highly cn(hirsed, and the system is the best 
and sliortest known. 



COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 

Brookfield's First Book in Composition. 

Ma'iin; the cidtivation of this iinoortant art feasible lor the smallest child. Cy a 
new method, to induce and stimulate thought. 

Boyd's Composition and Rhetoric. 

Tins work furnishes all the aid t'.nt is ni'i'lfiil nr can be desired in the various 
departments and styles of c<)Mii>osition, both ia prose and verse. 

Day's Art of Rhetoric. 

Noted for exactness of delinitio-.i, dear liniitafi >n, and ]>hilosnphieal development of 
subject; the large share of attention given to invention, as a branch of rhetoric, and 
the une<iualled analysis of style. 

Bardeen's Sentence-Making. 
Bardeen's Shorter Rhetoric. 
Bardeen's Complete Rhetoric. 

The plan of thij trejtisc is wholly novel, and is its most cliaracteristic feature. 

The author bi'jini with Sentence-Making, w'.ii^-h is to rlietoric wait carpentry or 
masonry is to .".rchitccture, — not i)roperly a part of it, bat to be absolutely ma.>teVed, 
so tliat the architect's ideas miy be carried out with pri)m))tness and lu-ecision. 

This " handicraft,'' so to speak, liaving been accpiirod, the student is ready to apply 
it according to the rules of the art. V/Jiere lirst? He is requireil to converse almost 
constantly, ami he has already learned that it is .sometimes difficult to converse well. 
Let him see that the rules of rhetoric a!>iily primarily to th«! every-day talk in which 
he is cuTi^'ed, and rhetoric become-, a real tliiu','. Accordingly, tlie author follows with 
a fidl ami familiar treatment of Conversation. 

As all nnist talk, so nearly nil must wiilc httcrs of one kind or another ; and the 
second |>art of the book is devoted to Letter-Writing. In itself this subject is 
treated with incisive directness and jiractical force, business letters receiving special 
attention. 

With tlie Essay arises a new necessity, — of formal invention. The author clearly 
shows Iha':, a diTtmet part of what is oft^n calle<l " insjiiration " in writing comes from 
hard lib )r nnd?r lixed rules hero laid down; that this labf)r is indisjtensable even to 
respectable writing, and that without tliis labor no i)roducti(m is worthy to be calleil 
an essav. 

The Oration introduces anew feature, — Ihe oral delivery to an audience, with all 
the jiriiM-iol's of articulation, emphasis, gesture, and otlier iirin'ij)les usually referrecl 
to elocution as a distinct subject. The discussion of cxlempore speaking is remarkably 
terse and heltiful. 

Finally comes the Poem, more briefly treated, with the most important directions 
as to Illiythni and Rhyme 

Here we liave then six di.stinet p,irt.s. — Sentence-Making, Conversation, Letter- 
Writiii'.:, the Essay, the Oration, and the Poem. 

When all this is taken into consideration, the book seems small instead of Large, 
and we must wonder Kow so much was got into so little space. 

50 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 




LITERATURE. 

Gilman's First Steps in English Literature. 

The character and plan of this exquisite little text-boolv may be best iinderstoon nom 
an analysis of its contents : Introduction. Historical Period of Injiuature English, 
with Chart ; Definition of Terms ; Languages of Eurojte, with Chart ; Period of Mature 
English, with Chart ; a Chart of Bible Translations, a Bibliography or Guide to Genera] 
Reading, and other aids to the student. 

Cleveland's Compendiums. 3 vols. 12mo. 

English Litei^vtuke. Ameimcan I.iteraturk. 

English Litkkatuhe of the XIXth Centuky. 

In these volumes are gathered the cream of the literature of the English-speaking 
people for the school-room and the general reader. Their reputation is national. More 
than 125,000 copies have been sold. 

Boyd's English Classics. 6 vols. Cloth. 12mo. 

Milt<>n's Paradise Lost. Thomson's Seasons 

Young's Night I'moughts. Pollok's Course of Tnm. 

CowPEKs Task, Table Talk, &c. Lord Bacon's Essays. 

This series of annotated etlitions of great English writers in pn'se and poetry is 
designed f(jr critical reading and parsiTig in schools. Prof. J. R. Boyd proves himself 
an editor of hi'^li capacity, and the works themselves need no eucomium. As auxiliary 
to the study of belles-lettres, &c., these works have no equal. 

Pope's Essay on Man. 1 Hmo. Paper. 
Pope's Homer's Iliad. 82mo. Roan. 

The metrical translation of the gre-it jioet of antiquity, and the matchless "Essay on 
the Nature and State of Man," by Alexander Popte, afford anperior exercise in literature 
and parsing. 



POLITICAL ECONOMY. 

Champlin's Lessons on Political Economy. 

An improvement on j)revious treatises, being shorter, yet containing everything 
essential, with a view of recent questions in finance, &c., which is not elsewlwre 
found. 

51 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



ESTHETICS. 

Huntington's Manual of the Fine ArtSo 

A view (if tlie rise an<l iirogress ^^t' jirl in difl'eieiit coimtrips, r brief account of the 
most t'liiiiieiit masters tif art. ami an analysis of tlie jiriiicijik's o. art. It is complete 
in itself, or may jireeede to advantage the critical work of Lord Kumes. 

Boyd's Karnes's Elements of Criticism. 

The bes>t edition of this standard work ; without the study of which none maybe 
considered jirolicieiit in the science of the ]>crceiitioiis. No other study can be pursued 
with so m.'irked an elFect upon the t;iste and rehnement of the pui)il. 



ELOCUTION, 



Watson's Practical Elocution. 

A scieiititic ]>rese.ntment of accejited principles of elocutionary drill, with black- 
board diagrams and luU collection of examples for class drill. Clotli. 90 pages, 12mo. 

Taverner Graham's Reasonable Elocution. 

Baseti upon tlie belief that true eloiution is the right inter]iretatioii of thought, 
and guiding the student to an intelligent appreciation, instead of a merely mechanical 
knowledge, of its rules. 

Zachos's Analytic Elocution. 

All dei>artments of elocution — such as the aiialj'sis of the voice and the sentence, 
]ihonology, rhythm, expression, gesture, &c. — are here arranged for instruction in 
classes, illustrated by copious examples. 



SPEAKERS. 

Northend's Little Orator. 
Northend's Child's Speaker. 

Two little works of the same grade but ditferent selections, containiug simple and 

attractive jiieces for cliildreii under twelve years of age. 

Northend's Young Declaimer. 
Northend's National Orator. 

Two volumes of prose, poetry, and dialogue, ad.ipted to intermediate and grammar 
classes resi>ectively. 

Northend's Entertaining Dialogues. 

I'xtraits cniinently adapteil to cultivate tlie draiiKilic faculties, at well as entertain. 

Oakey's Dialogues and Conversations. 

Tor scliool exercises and exhibitions, combining useful instruction. 

James's Southern Selections, for Reading and Oratory 

Fmbracing exclusively Southern literature. 

Swett's Common School Speaker. 
Raymond's Patriotic Speaker. 

.\ suiierb compilation of modern eh)(pience and poetry, with original dramatic 
exfcrcii**. Ktwly every einineni modem orator ia represented. 

52 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOhS. 



MIND. 

Mahan's Intellectual Philosophy. 

The subject exliaiistively considered. The author has evinced learning, candor, and 
independent thinking. 

Mahan's Science of LfOgic. 

A profound analysis of tlie laws of thought. The sj^stein possesses the merit of being 
intelligible and sel. -consistent. In addition to the author's carefully elaborated views, 
it embraces results attained by the ablest minds of Great Britain, Germany, and France, 
in this department. 

Boyd's Elements of Logic. 

A systematic and jiliilosophic condensation of the subject, fortified with additions 
from Watts, Abercrombie, Whately, (fcc. 

Watts on the Mind. Edited by Stephen N. Fellows. 

Tlie " Improvement of the Mind," by Isaac Watts, is designed as a guide for the 
attainment of useful knowledge. As a text-book it is unparalleled ; and the discipline 
it affords cannot be too highly esteemed by the educator. 



MORALS. 

Peabody's Moral Philosophy. 

A short course, by the Professor of Christian Morals, Harvard University, for the 
Freshman cl.iss and for high schools. 

Butler's Analogy. Hobart's Analysis. 

Eilited by Prof. Charles E. West, of Brooklyn Heights Seminary. 228 i)ages. 16rao. 
Cloth. 

Alden's Text-Book of Ethics. 

For young pupils. To aid in systematizing the eth'cal teachings of the Bible, and 
point out the coincidences between the instructions of the sacred volume and the sound 
conclusions of reason. 

Smith's Elements of Moral Philosophy. 

140 pages. 12mo. Clotli. By Wm. Au.stin Smith, A M., Ph.D., Professor of Moral 
Plul'jsophy in the Columbia (Tenn ) Athenaeum. 

This is an excellent book for the use of academies and schools. It is prepared to 
meet the wants of a much larger public than has heretofore been reached by works of 
this cla s. The subject is presented in cl ar and simi.le language, and will be found 
ad ipted to the comprehension of young jnipils, at a time when they particularly need 
an insight into the laws which govern the moral world. 

Janet's Elements of Morals. 

By Paul Janet. Translated by Mrs. Prof. Corson, of Cornell University. 

The Elements of Morals is one of a series of works chiefly devoted to Ethics, and 
treats of practical, rather tuan theoretical morality. 

Mr. Janet is too well hnown that it be neces.sary to call attention to his excellence 
as a moral writer, and it will be sufficient to say that what ]-.articularly reconmiends 
the Elements of Morals to educators and students in general is the admirable adap- 
tation of tlie book to college and school purposes. 

Besides the systematic and scholarly arrangement of its parts, it contains series of 
examples and illustrations — anecdotic, historical — gathered with rare impartiality 
from both ancient and modern writers, and which impart a peculiar life and interest to 
the subject. 

Another feature of the work is its sound religious basis. Mr. Janet is above Jdl 
a religious moralist 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 

GOVERNMENT. 

Young's Lessons in Civil Government. 

A ci)iiijin'lu'nsive view of Government, ami abstract of the laws showing tlie rights, 
duties, ami responsibilities of citizens. 

Mansfield's Political Manual. 

Tliis is a cnniiilctf view of tlie tlieory ainl practice of the General aiifl State Govern- 
ments, ilesigned as a text-lH)ok. Tlie author is an esteemed ami alile professor of con- 
stitutional law, widely known for his sagacious utterances in the public press. 

Martin's Civil Government. 

From Prof. Geo. B. Kvierson, Boston. 

"It is clear and well arranged, and very comprehensive. Whoever reads [it atten- 
tively will understand more fully and satisfactorily than he could have done without 
it the history of his own country. an<l any otlier. Every young man should study it 
before he comes to vote, and it shouhl theivfore be a text-book in every High fcchool 
and Academy, and a i)art of the library of every lover of his country." 

From F. P. Conn, Co. Supt. of Schools, Vanderburgh Co., Ind. 

"It embraces the essential knowledge of the .science, and its arrangement affords 
ready references to a contents easily acquired. Am satisfied that no more useful book 
could be adopted, especially in the ungraded schools of the country, where libraries 
and newspapers are rare." 

Antebellum Constitutions. 

A complete collection of .State and Federal Constitutions as they stood before the 
Civil War of ISGl. With a« essay on chauyes made during the reconstruction period, 
by Wiliuot L. Warren. 



PUNCTUATION. 

Cocker's Handbook of Punctuation. 

With instructions for capitalization, letter-writing, and proof-reading. Most works 
on this subject are so abstruse and technical that the unprofessional reader fi.ids them 
dilficult of comprehension ; but tliis little, treatise is so simjile ;uid conipreh')i>sive that 
persons of very ordinary intelligence can readily understand and apply its pvijciples. 



ANATOMY. 

Anatomical Technology as Applied to theDomestic Cat. 

An introduction to human, veterinary, ami •■omparatixi^ anatomy. A ]iractical work 
for students and teachers. GOO pages. liJO figures, and four litliograph plates. By 
Burt G. Wilder and yiinon II. Gage, Professors in Cornell University. 



" Instructions in the best method of 
dissectii)n and study of each organ and 
region." — American I'eterinnn/ Jtcvino. 

" A valuable nwuinal, at once author- 
itative in statement and admirable in 
method." — American Journal of Medical 
Sciencr. 

" Well adapted to tlie jmrpose for wliicn 
it has been written." — Nature. 



54 



"The student who will carefully dis.sect 
a few cats according to the rules given in 
this book will have a great advantage over 
the one who begins liis work with tlie 
human body ; and if he will master the iii- 
«tructif)ns for the various met^iods of 
ju'ej>aration, he will know mon; ^har. most 
graduates in medicine." — The Boston 
Medical and Surgical Journal 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



MODERN LANGUAGES. 



A COMPLETE COURSE IN THE GERMAN. 
By James H. Worman, A.M., Professor of Modern Language*. 

Worman's First German Book. 
Worman's Second German Book. 
Worman's Elementary German Grammar. 
W^orman's Complete German Grammar. 

These volumes are designed for intermediate and advanced classes respectively. 

Though following the same general method with " Otto " (that of "Gaspey "), out 
author difiFers essentially in its application. He is more practical, more systematic 
more accurate, and besides introduces a number of invaluable features which have 
never before been combined in a German grammar. 

Among other things, it may he claimed for Professor Worman that he has been t\l 
first to introduce, in an American text-book lor learning German, a system of analogy and 
comparison with other languages. Our best teachers are also enihusiastit; about his 
methods of mculcating the art of speaking, of understanding the spoken language, of 
correct pronunciation ; the sensible and convenient original classification of nouns (in 
four declensions), and of irregular verbs, also deserves much praise. We also note the 
use of heavy type to indicate etymological changes in the paradigms and, in the exer- 
cises, the parts which specially illustrate preceding rules. 

Worman's Elementary German Reader. 
Worman's Collegiate German Reader. 

The finest and most judicious compilation of classical and standard German literature 
These works embrace, progressively arranged, selections from the masterpieces of 
Goethe, Schiller, Korner, Seume, Uhland, Freiligratli, Heine, Schlegel, Holty, Lenau. 
Wieland, Herder, Lessing, Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Winkehnann, Humboldt, Ranke, 
Raumer, Menzel, Gervinus, &c., and contain complete Goethe's " Iphigenie," Schiller's 
"Jungfrau;" also, for instruction in modern conversational German, Benedix's 
" Eigensinn." 

There are, besides, biographical sketches of each author contributing, notes, explan- 
atory and philological (after the text), grammatical re ereuces to all leading grammars, 
as well as the editor's own, md an adequate Vocabulary. 

Worman's German Echo. 

Worman's German Copy-Books, 3 Numbers. 

On the same plan as the most approved systems for English penmanship, with 
progressive copies. 

CHAUTAUQUA SERIES. 

First and Second Books in German. 

By the natural or Pestalozzian System, for teaching the language without the helv 
of the Learner's Vernacular. By James H. Worman, A. M. 

These books belong to the new Chautauqua German Language Series, and are m- 
tended for beginners learning to speak German. The peculiar features of its method 
are : — 

1. It teaches the language by direct appeal to illustrations of the objects 
referred to, and does not allow the student to guess what is said. He si^eaks from the 
first hour understand inglu and accuratelij. Therefore, 

2. Grammar is taught both analytically and synthetically throughout tht 
course. The beginning is made with the auxiliaries of tense and mood, because their 
kinship with the English makes them easily intelligible : then follow the declensions of 
nouns, articles, and other parts of speech, always systematically arranged. It is eai^y 
to confuse the pupil by giving him one person or one case at a time. This pernicious 
practice is discarded. Books that beget unsystematic habits of thought are worse than 
worti less. 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



MUUEHN LANGUAGES — Continued. 

3. The rules are introduced after the examples; the purpose being to emploj 
first the lowt-r or tst-nsf i.uuiiy m tiic iiiiiid. 

4. Everything is taught by contrast and association, to avoid overtaxing the 

Tieniory at tin/ ixi'fusf oi iiu- reason. 

5. The lessons convey much practical varied information, and engage the ob- 
serving as well as tlie ihuiking t'a>uilies ot llif learner s niMui. 

In sliort, this brief sories contains witlmi its few jiaires all the essentials of Germanr 
Grammar so presented that their masteij is easy, and the student prepared ni)on its 
sompletion to enter ui)on the study of the inoie recondite, comijlicated, and irregular 
principles of the language. 

little books for beginners in German and 
French prepared by Professor Wornian. 
The Professor is taking his ]>:iiiiU 
aiong the right road rapidly and delight- 
fully'. 

Whatever may be said of the tedious- 
ness of learning the grammar ot a new 
language. I think all will agree that the 
great laoor is mastering the vof-abulaiy. 
And itis.iust at this point that 1 think 
these books are of great use. The exercises 
are so developed out uf pictured objects and 
actions, and are so well graduated that 
almost from ihe very outset they go alone. 
A beijinner would have little use tor 
a dictionary in reading the " First French 
Book;"' and vet the WvUds are so irilroilui cd 
and so olten used, that the mcanin.i^ is 
kept constantly before tlie mind, without 
the intervention of a translation By this 
means the pupil soon makes then) his 
permanent ]>os.session. 

A dozen volumes as well graduated as 
these would do much to give the student 
an extended vocabulary. I trust Professor 
Wornian will continue his good work. 
Vours very iruiy 

L. Dt'NTON. 

From Mr. R. T. Taylor, of Beaver, Pa. 

Messrs. A. S. Barnks & Cu. 

Dear Sir.s, — Your kindness in sending 
books aj)preciated. I have examined Pro- 
fes.sorWorman's " First FYench Book "and 
I think it the best thing of the kind I have 
ever seen. There is .just enough of th^ 
grainniar combined to make the natural 
method practical)le. I sliall introduce 
the work into my school this fall. We have 
been using Proies.sor Worman's German 
books and are veiy much pleased with 
them. The "Echo," in jiarticular, de- 
lights pupils. They make more advance- 
ment in one year Ity this metiiod than in 
two by the old manner of teaching. 

Wishing you success in your business, 
i uiu 

Yours very truly. 

R. T. TAVL08- 



From Pr((F. Schele de Vere, aiithtr of a 
French (Iramtiuxr, Studies in English, dc, 
dtc. University of Virginia, Va. 

Prof. James H. Worman. 

Mv DEAR Sir, — Your very liberal jnib- 
lishers (Messrs. A. S. Barnes &Co.) have 
done me the honor to send me a copy of 
your excellent works, The P'irst French and 
the Second German Book. It needed 
no introduction in the shape of compli- 
mentary notices sans nombres to call my 
attention to the eiiinent merits of these 
valuable publications. But I was sin- 
cerely glad that the public at large, as 
well as me, confreres litteraires dans ce 
de|iartement de la Linguistitpie, have at 
length discerned the great advantages of 
your method, and enabled you and your 
publishers to bring out your works in a 
style so truly in sympathy with the in- 
trinsic value of tlie diHerent volumes. 

Most unfortunately — for how I should 
delight to wield sncli ex(juisitely shai)ed 
and sharpened instruments to make my 
way into thick crania and dense brains ! 
— onr university way of teaching does 
not admit of the admirable method jire- 
Scribed in your volumes. The laws ot 
the .Medpfl art' as Irreversible here as tlic 
Decrees of .Mr. JefferBon, and when I fan- 
cied I had obtained the victory, I found 
myself fiu'ed l>y a stern decree. Ail I can 
do, therefore, is to recommend your works 
most earnestly and most urgently, in the 
point of economy, to my young graduates, 
liundreds of whom leave us every harvest 
time, to scatter their seed:-, broadcast over 
(he vast fields of the South, and to profess 
boldly their adherence to the confessions 
of their teachers. 

Wishing you heartily the best success, 
and hoping that I shall be able hereafter 
also modestly to assist yon, I remain, very 
sincerely yours, Scuele De Vere. 

From Head Master, Boston {Mass.) Normal 
i>chuol. 
Messrs. A. S Barnes k Co , — I want to 
thank you for the copies of those beautiful 



56 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



FRENCH. 

Worman's First French Book. 

On same plan as tlie German and Spanish. The scholar reads and speaks from the 
first hour unders.andlngly and accurately. 83 i)ages. 

Worman's Second French Book. 

Continues the work of the First Book, and is a valuable Elementary French Reader, 
,96 pages. ' 

Worman's Le Questionnaire. 

Exercises on the First French Book. 98 pages. Cloth. 

W^orman's Grammaire Fran^aise. 

Written in simple French, but based on English analogy. It therefore dwells upon tlie 
Essentials, especially those which point out the variations of the French from the 
student's vernacular. 184 pp. 

Worman's Teacher's Hand-Book. 

Or Key to the Grammaire Francaise. 

Worman's French Echo. 

This is not a mass of meaningless and parrot-like phrases thrown together fer 
a tourist's use, to bewilder him when in the presence of a Frenchman. 

The " Echo de Paris " is a strictly progressive conversational book, beginning with sim- 
ple phrases and leading by frequent repetition to a mastery of the idioms and of the 
euery-day language used in business, on travel, at a hotel, in the chit-chat ol 
society. 

It presupposes an elementary knowledge of the language, such as may be acquired 
from the First French Book by Professor Worman, and furnishes a i~iinning French 
text, allowing the learner of course to find the meaning of the words (in the appendec' 
Vocabulary), and forcing him, by the absence of English in the text, to think in 
French. 



Cher Monsieur Worman, — Vous me 
demandezmon opinion survotre "Echode 
Paris " et quel usage j'en fais. Je ne 
saurais mieux vous repondre qu'en repro- 
duisant une lettre que j'ecrivais derniere- 
ment 4 un coUegue qui etait, me disait-il, 
" bien fatigue de ces insipides livres de 
dialogues. " 

" Vous ne ronnaissez done pas," lui 
disais-je, " 'I'Echo de Paris,' edite par le 
Professor Worman ? C'est un veritable 
tresor, merveilleusement ada])te au devel- 
oi)peraent de la conversation familiere et 
pratique, telle qu'on la vent aujourd'hui. 
C>t excellent livre met successivement en 
scene, d'une maniere vive et interessante, 

Illustrated Language Primers. 

French and English. German and English. 

Spanish and English. 

The names of common objects properly illustrated and arranged in easy lessons. 

Pujol's Complete French Class-Book. 

Offers in one volume, methodically arranged, a complete French course — usually 
embraced in series of from five to twelve books, inclu'Ung the bulky and expensive 
lexicon. Here are grammar, conversation, and choice literature, selected from the 
best French authors. Each brancli is thoroughly handled : and the student, havin.-; 
diligently completed the course as prescribed, may consider himself, without furthei 
application, au Juit in the most polite and elegant language of modem times. 

57 



tomtes les circonstances possibles de la vie 
ordinaire. Voyez I'lmmense avantage 
il vous transporte en France ; du premier 
mot, je m'imagine, et mes eleves avee moi, 
que nous sommes a Paris, dans la rue, sur 
une place, dans une gare, dans un salon, 
dans une chambre, voire meme a la cui- 
sine ; je parle comme avec des Frangais ; 
les eleves ne songent pas a traduire de 
I'anglais pour me repondre ; ils pensent 
en frangais ; ils sont Frangais pour le 
moment par les yeux, par I'oreille, i>ar la 
pensee Quel autre livre pourrait produire 
cette illusion? ..." 

Votre tout aevou6, 

A. DE ROUGEMONT, 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



Modern languages— Con/inuctL 

Pujol's French Grammar, Exercises, Reader. 3 vols. 

11, I'M- \()li;iiii~i roMtMiii Tart 1., I'arls If. ai.d III., and i'aii IV. o: the Complete Clasa- 
Biiok lesp. ('lively, for tlio coiivi-iiieiii e of selu)lar.s ami teachers. Tlie Lexicon is bouud 
witli eacli i>art. 

Maurice-Poitevin's Grammaire Frangaise. 

AiiieriLaii schools aic at last sii|)iiheil with an Auuiican edition of this famous text- 
Ijouk. Many of our hest in^titulions have lor year.s been jirocuring it from abroad 
rather than forego the advantaj:es iroflers. The }'olicy of vutting students who have 
ie(iuire(l some i)idhciency from tne ordinary text-liooks, into a Grammar written iu the 
I'eruacular, cannot be too highly commended. It alfords an oi>portunity for liuish and 
review at once, while embodying abundant practice of its own rules. 



SPANISH. 

Worman's First Spanish Book. 

On same plan as AYorman's lirst German and French Books. Teaches by direct ap- 
peal to illustrations, and by contrast, association, and natural inference. 9() pji. 

Tluse little books work marvels iu the scliool-room. The exercises are so develo])ed 
out of pictured objects and actions, and are so well graduated, that almost Irom the 
very outset they go alone. A beginner would have little use for a dictionary in reading. 
The words are so introduced, and so often used, that the meaning is kept constantly 
before the miud, without the intervention of a translation. 

Other Sp.vnish Books to follow. 



ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 



LATIN 



Searing's VirgiTs iEneid, Georgics, and Bucolics. 

1. It contains the hrsl six liooks of the ,Eneid and the entire Bucolics and Georgica 
2. .\ very carefully constructed Dictionary. 'A. Sufficiently copious notes. 4. Gram- 
matical references to four leading Grammars. 5, NuMierous illustrations of the highest 
order. 6. A superb map of the Mediterranean and adjacent countries. 7. Dr. S. H. 
Tayhu's "Questions on the /Lneid." 8. A Metrical Index, and an essay on the 
Poetical Style. 9. A i)hotogra]»hic facsimile of an early Latin MS. 10. The text is 
acc(ndiug to Juhn, but paragrajihed according to Ladewig. 11. Superior mechanical 
execution. 



" My attention was called to Searing's 
Virgil by the fact of its containing a vo- 
caliul iry which would obviate the neces- 
sity tif i)rocuring a lexicon. Dut use iu 
the das-room has impressed me most 
favorably with the accuracy and just )iro- 
portion of its notes, and the general ex- 
;e!ien>e of its Lrrammatical suggestions. 
The general cliaraeter of the book, in its 

Johnson's Persius. 

Tlie Satires of Auliis Persius Flaccus, edited, with English notes, principally from 
Cr>ninirton. By Henry Clark Jolmaon, A. M. , LL.B., Professor of Latin in the Lehi^b 
University 

58 



l)aper. its typography, and its engravings, 
is liighly commendalile, and the ..ac-surtiic 
manuscriiiL is a valuable feature. I take 
great jdeasure in commending the book to 
all who do not wisli a complete edition of 
Virgil. It suits our short school courses 
admirably." IIk.nrv L. Boltwood, Mas- 
ter Princeton High School, III. 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDAfsn SCHOOL-BOOKS. 




GREEK, 



Scarborough's First Lessons in Greek. 

A new two-term text-book, with copious notes and references to the Grammars of 
G(>odwin and Hadley, and an adequate Vocabulary. Designed as an Elementary Drill- 
book on the inflections and syntax of the Greek language. 

I. These Lessons embrace all the essential points of the Gieek etymology and syn- 
tax, ana are sufficient to introduce the learner to Goodwin's Greek Reader, Xenophon's 
Anabasis, or similar Greek. 

II. The notes and references are full enough in every particular to give the 
student a thorough knowledge of the rudimentary forms, inHecti(JUS, and ijrinciples of 
the Greek language. 

III. The verb is introduced early, so that the inflections of nouns and verbs 
are given side by side, and the pupil is at once made acquainted with complete 
sentences. 

IV. As the student advances, the princii)les of Greek syntax are gradually developed 
so that he is led step by step from the siuiple to the more complex. 

V. The book is divided into two Darts. The first consists of seventy-eight lessons, 
with Greek and English lessons alternating. Tlie second, of selections from the 
Anabasis (parts of the 1st and 6th chapters, Bk. I.) and the Memorabilia (the Choice of 
Hercules, Bk. II., chapter 1). 

VI. The book is sufficient Jor all purposes in rudimentary instruction. 



From The Religions Herald, Hartford, Ct. 
" We are highly pleased with this ele- 
mentary work, the eighty-five lessons of 
part first may well be taken in fifteen to 
twenty weeks, and part second may be 
l>ursued to advantage, or the scholar may 
go directly from the first part to the Ana- 
basis. The arrangement of lessons is 
good, which the teacher will employ at 
his discretion so as to secure the most 
efficient work of his classes." 

" I have examined Professor Scarbo- 
rough's ' First Lessons in Greek ' with 
some care, and am much interested in 



the book. It is clear and accurate, de- 
velopes the suljject naturally and easily 
and is handsomely printed. The methods 
of a practical teacher are everywhere 
seen." Wm. G. Frost, 

Professor of Greek, Oberlin College, Ohio. 

"I have examined Professor Scarbo- 
rough's ' First Lessons in Greek ' with 
much care. I am exceedinuly well jileased 
with tlie work and think it in every way 
well adaT)*^ed to the uses for which it is 
intended. " 

Wm it. Tibball, 
Principal of Poland (0.), Seminary. 



60 



THB NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-ROOKS. 

SCHOOL MUSIC. 

Ryan's Vocalist. 

A new siiigiiijj book for Graded Schools, Seminaries and social assemblies. 232 pnges, 
long Svo, ciotli. 

The National School Singer. 

Bright, new nuisic for tlic day scliool, onitiraring Song Lessons, Exercise Songs, Songs 
of Study, Order, rroniptness, and Obedience, of Industry and Nature, Patriotic and 
Temperance Son;^s, Opening and Closing yongs ; in fact, everything needed in the 
school-room. By an eminent musician and comjioser. 

Jepson's Music Readers. 3 vols. 

These are not books from which children simply learn songs, parrot-like, but teach 
the s;;bject progressively, the scholar learning to read music by methods similar to 
those employed in teaching him to read i>rinted language. Any teacher, however igno- 
rant of music, provided lie can, upon trial, simply sound the scale, may teach it without 
assistance, and will end by b^ing a good singer himself. The " Elementiiry Music 
Reader," or first volume, fully develops the system. The two companion volumes carry 
the same method into the higher grades, but their use is not essential. 

The First Reader is also published in three parts, at thirty cents each, for those wlio 
prefer them in that form. 

Nash and Bristow's Cantara. 

The first vulume is a complete musiial text-book for schools of ever}' grade. No. 2 is 
a choice selection of solos and jjart songs. The authors are Directors of Music 
in the public schools of New York City, in which these books are the standard of 
instiaictiim. 

The Polytechnic. 

Collection of Part Songs for High and Normal Schools and Clubs. This work con- 
tains a quantity of exceedingly valuable material, heretofore accessible only in sheet 
form or scattered in iiunierous and costly works. The collection of " College Songs " 
is a very attractive feature. 

Curtis's Little Singer: — School Vocalist. — Kings- 
ley's School-Room Choir. — Young Ladies' 
Harp. — Hager's Echo (A Cantata). 



SCHOOL DEVOTIONAL EXERCISE, 

Brooks's School Manual of Devotion. 

This volume contains daily devotional exercises, consisting of a hymn, selections of 
Scripture for alternate reading by teacher and pupils, and a prayer, its value for open- 
ing and closing school is apjiareiit. 

Brooks's School Harmonist. 

Contains api>ropriate tunes for each hymn in the " Manual of Devotion " described 

nhnv,.. 

Bartley's Songs for the School. 

A selection of aitprojiriate hymns of an unsectarian character, carefully cla-ssificd 
and set to i)Oi)Ular and " singable " tunes, for opening and closing exercises. The Secu- 
lar Department in full of bright and w«ll-selectt;d music. 

61 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS, 
TEACHERS' AIDS AND SCHOOL REQUISITES. 

CHARTS AND MAPS. 

Baade's Reading Case. 

This remarkable ])iece of school-room furniture is a receptacle containing a number 
of primary cards. By an arrangement of slides on the front, one sentence at a time is 
shown to the class. Twenty-eight thousand transpositions may be made, affording a 
variety of progressive exercises which no other piece of apparatus ofters. One of its 
best features is, that it is so exceedingly simple as not to get out of order, while it may 
fbe operated with one linger. 

'Clark's Grammatical Chart. 

Exhibits the whole science of language in one comprehensive diagram. 

Davies's Mathematical Chart. 

Elementary mathematics clearly tauglit to a full class at a glance. 

De Rupert's Philological and Historical Chart. 

This very comprehensive chart shows the birth, development, and ])rogress of the 
literatures of the world ; their importance, their iiitiuence on each other, and the cen- 
tury in which such influence was exi)erienced ; with a list for each country of standard 
authors and their best works. Illustrating also the divisiou of languages into classes, 
families, and groups. Giving date of settlement, discovery, or conquest of all countries, 
with their government, religion, area, ].opulation, and tlie percentage of enrolment for 
1S72, in tlie primary scliools of Europe and America, 

Eastman's Chirographic Chart. Family Record. 
Giffins's Number Chart. 

Teaches addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Size, 23x31 inches. 

Marcy's Eureka Tablet. 

A new system for tlie alphabet, by which it may be taught without fail in nine lessons. 

McKenzie's Elocutionary Chart. 
Monteith's Pictorial Chart of Geography. 

A crayon picture illustrating aU the divisions of the earth's surface commonly 
taught in geography. 
Wm. L. Dickinson, Snperintendent of 

Scliooh, Jerseii C'ty, says. 
"It is an admirable amplification of the 
sy.stem of iiictorial illustration adojited 

Monteith's Ref'^rence Maps. School and Gran<l Series. 

Names all laid down in small type so that to the pni)il at a short distance they are 
outline maps, while they serve as their oun key to the teacher. 

Page's Normal Chart. 

The whole science of elementary sounds tabulated. 

Scofield's School Tablets. 

On five cards, exhibiting ten surfaces. These tablets teach orthography, reading, 
object-lessons, color, form, &c. 

Watson's Phonetic Tablets. 

Four cards and eight surfaces ; teaching jironunciation and elocution phonetically. 
For class exercises. 

Whitcomb's Historical Chart. 

A student's topical historical chart, from the creation to the present time, including 
results of the latest chronological research. Arranged with spaces for summary, that 
jiupils may prepare and review tlieir own chart iu connection with any text-book. 

Willard's Chronographers. 

Historical. Four numbers : Ancient chronographer, English chronographer, Ameri- 
can chronographer, temple of time (general). Dates and events represented to the eye- 

62 



in all good geographies. I think the 
chart would be a great heli> iu any pri- 
mary department." 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



CHARTS, &c. — Continued. 

Popular Folding Reading Charts. 

Ill two jiarts. I'lii-.' i^.oO rarh. J licsc litt\ -llin'e cliarts are the out-ruwtli of prac- 
tical reading lessons, all of wliicli have bet-ii "tried with classes of little children, first 
as black-board lessons, and afterward as printed manuscripts, liy this method all the 
lessons were atlapted to the capacity of the children. The words have been carefully 
select<fd and graded from the child's owu spoken vocabulary. 

PART I. 

The new words of the first i)art are taught 
by the word and sentence method, the object- 
words being illustrated by engravings. 

All the lessons si>arkle with real childlike 
expressions. The language is tiie language 
of childhood, and thus to the pupil becomes 
doubly interesting while at the same time 
progressive. 

The Clock Face, with Movable Hands, is 
an important and atti active fe.itare. The au- 
thors know from experience that very hap]>y 
results can be had by its u.se. Teaching clul- 
dren to tell the time has always been ex)>ected 
of the teacher, though seldom, if ever, has an 
opportunity been attbrded him to do so. 

All the letters of tli(! alphaltct are taught by 
a series of writing lessons in the (»rder of 
their development, and are linally grouped to- 
gether in a script alphabet. 




UNIQUE 

READING 

CHART 



hl | ;,MI|!|-JJJ I lf!IWl|iMiJl [ !g'0 l|i il. ii< r^ '' 3 yi. * ■ 



(folded) 



PART II 

takes up the development of the elementary 
sounds ot the hingu; ge, from the woids already 
learned in Part I., ii. such a way as to enable 
the child to ree for him.seU how words are made, 
and giving the key by which he can make out 
for liiniself new words. 

A series of language lessons is the featiire 
of this ]>art, by wliich ( l.iidrcii are gradually 
taught the use of words liy composing brief 
sentences .nnd oritrinai .stories. 

The Color Chart is the most unique feature 
ever offercil to the public, enabling the teacher 
to teach the luiniary and secondaiy colors from 
nature. 

Many review lessons are given in order that 
the children may learn to read by reading. 

No easel or framework of any kind is re- 
quired with the chart. The publi^^bers have 
pocured thf* ex<-lnsive riirht to use Shepard's 
Patent Chart Binding, the use of wiiich 
gi\es it a derided ad\antage over any other 
reading chart yet made. It is in this respect 
muipproachable. 




A little crirl. 



Here is a girl. 
[Hereisalittle girl. 

//^ y/^ /OO 



open' 



G3 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 

APPARATUS. 

Bock's Physiological Apparatus. 

A collection of twenty-seven anatomical models. 

Harrington's Fractional Blocks. 
Harrington's Geometrical Blocks. 

These patent blocks are hinged, so that each form can be dissected, 

Kendall's Lunar Telluric Globe. 

Moon, globe, and tellnrian combined. 

Steele's Chemical Apparatus. 
Steele's Geological Cabinet. 
Steele's Philosophical Apparatus. 
Wood's Botanical Apparatus. 



RECORDS. 

Cole's Self-Reporting Class Book. 

Foi saving the teacher's labor in averaging. At each opening are a full set of tables 
showing any scholar's standing at a glance, and entirely obviating the necessity of 
computation. 

Tracy's School Record. {Fo^etefSn.} 

For keeping a sinijile but exact record ol attendance, dei)ortment, and scholarship. 
The larger edition contains also a calendar, an extensive list of topics for compositions 
and colloquies, themes for short lectures, suggestions to young teachers, &c. 

Benet's Individual Records. 
Brooks's Teacher's Register. 

Pr;',;ents at one view a lecord of attendance, recitations, and deportment for tlie 
whole term. 

Carter's Record and Roll-Book. 

This is the most complete and convenient record offered to the public. Besides the 
usual si)aces for general scholarship, deportment, attendance, &c., for each name and 
day, there is a space in red lines enclosing six minor spaces in blue for recording 
recitations. 

National School Diary. 

A little book of blank forms for weekly report of the standing of each scholar, from 
teacher to parent. A great convenience. 



REWARDS. 



National School Currency. 

A little box containing certilicates in the form of money. The most entertaining and 
stimulating system of school rewards. The scholar is paid for his merits and fined for 
his short-comings. Of course the most faithful are the most successful in business. 
In this way the use and value of money and the method of keeping accounts are also 
taught. One box of currency will supply a school of fifty pupils. 

64 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. 



COPY-BOOKS, &c. 

Barnes's New National System of Penmanship. 

Thia new series of Cdiiy-books, in six numbers, is based ujton many years' experience 
The publishers think these books are the best ever made in this country, for the following 
reasons : — 

1. Tliey contain a tliorouf?hly Practical System of Pennianshi|), which, if once well 
learned in school, will not i>rove too dillicult of execution for business purposes or private 
correspt)ndence. 

2. They have been prei)ared in the most careful manner, without regard to expense, 
by experts in the business ; and the copies are infinitely superior to all others in the 
market, not only in beauty and grace of style, but also in accuracy of outline and 
proportion. 

3. Pupils wlio use these books as directed will write in a free, graceful, rai)id man 
ner, ami not in the slow, cramped, and crabbed style so common in many schools. 

" 4. The cla.ssilication of capitals is wonderfully .■^implihed. Eleven letters are formed 
on one general jdan ; ten on another, and the rest on a third. The number of elements 
is reduced to live. Other system j have from seven to thirteen. 

5. The gradation is perfectly simple. Only familiar words, and those easy of forma- 
tion, are used, and not such unusual enigmatical words as "zeugma," "urqnesne," 
" xylus," " tenafly," ''quinque," " minetic," " xuthus," and the like, that have long 
been the bane ot both teachers and pupils. 

6. No time has been lost by placing before the pujul disconnected words, unmean- 
ing phrases, and stale aphorisms ; but the complete sentence has been used early in the 
series, that the pupil, wiiile writing, might be expressing thoughts, rather than simply 
copying abstra'/t won Is. 

7. Tiie business forms are elaborately engraved on steel and printed on patent safety- 
tint i^aper. They are exactly like the checks, notes, drafts, receii)ts, etc., useil in 
business, and the learning how to fill them out will serve as an admirable introduction 
to the counting-room. 

8. The whole .series for ungraded schools is comprised in six books ; but for the 
benefit of the large, graded schools in both city and country, there are six additional 
books, of smaller size, to meet the demands of a still closer gradation. 

Ward's Letter-Writing and Business Forms. 

For ?icliools and Academies. In Four Numbers. No. 1, Letters and Bills. No. 2, 
Letters, Receipts, Acn-ounts, etc. No. 3, Letters, Notes, Drafts, etc. No. 4, General 
Practice. 48 pages each. Price 15 cents each. 

Intended to supply more practical work in the school-room. Letter-writing, Bills, 
Receipts, Accounts, Checks, Notes, and all Commercial forms are given for practice. 

Beers's System of Progressive Penmanship. 

Tliis "rouinl li.nid " system of Pciiiiianship, in twelve numbers, cnmmends itself by 
its simplicity and thoroughness. The hi-st four numbers are primary books. Nos. 5 to 
7, Jidvanced books for boys. Nos. 8 to 10, advanced books lor girl.s. Nos. 11 and 12, 
ornamental penmanshii). These books are ]innted from steel i)lates (engraved by 
McLees), and are unexcelled in mechanical execution. 

Beers's Slated Copy Slips. 

Sl.te fXtTcist's, liimiliariziug bi'niiiutTs with the form of the letters, the motions of 
the hand and arm, etc , etc. These copy slijjs, ?,2 in number, supply all the copies found 
in a complete series of writing-books, at a trifling cost. 

Fulton & Eastman's Chirographic Charts 

To eiii()«lli:,li till' srli.Mil mom w;ills, and lurnisli class exercise in the eleiueuts of 
Pennjr.nslii]). 

Payson's Copy-Book Cover. 

Protects every \wa*- rx(«pt the one m use, and furnishes " lines " with proper slope 
^»r the penman, under. Patented. 

66 



NATIONAL STATIONERY SPECIALTIES. 



INK. 
Barnes s National Inks. 

We beg leave to inform the public that we have taken special pains to prepare a full 
line of inks, and desire to call attention to the very great advantages they ofier over any 
simdar articles. The bottles containing these inks are of an elegant pa' tern of full 
capacity, made of a superior quality of glass, and have ebouized stoppers which are 
easily withdrawn. 

Barnes's Jet Black National Ink. 

Prepared especially from a new formula. The demand for it originated in the neces- 
sity of furnishing a good ink in connection with our new Co]iy Books, "Barnes National 
(System of Penmanship." 

When large quantities of ink are wanted, as for schools, we have prepared a Patent 
Faucet Swincjinrj Can, holding from one to ten gallons, which by its simjilicity of con- 
struction, lightness, and safety in shipi)ing obviates the very serious objections to the 
unwieldy jugs. By this device a child may easily and safely fill a well or bottle without 
losing or spilling a drop. 

Barnes's National Writing Fluid. 

After one trial of this ink every business man will prefer it to all others. It is per- 
fectly limpid deep blue, will not corrode the pen, turns soon to an intense black, does 
not fade, and will give eminent satisfaction, 

Barnes's National Copyi^ig Ink. 

Is an extra strong and sensitive ink that writes a very deep color, gives a clear copy, 
possesses great fluidity, does not set off nor fade, always cojiies. 

Barnes's Writing and Copying Ink Combined. 

Flows freely, writes dark blue soon turning to jet black, and is X"ositively permanent. 

Barnes's National Carmine Ink. 

A biilliant sliade, perfectly fluid, does not corrode the pen, does not fade; a safe ink 
for everybody to use. 

BEWARE OF IMITATIONS. 

Every bottle of the sizes above four ounces bears a beautiful ten-colored label. 



PENS. 
National Steel Pens. 

Pronounced by competent judges the perfection of American-made pens, and supe- 
rior to any foreign article. 

Stlmpson's Scientific Steel Pen. 

One forward and two l^ackward arches, insuring great strength, well-balanced elas- 
ticity, evenness of point, and smoothness of execution. One gross in twelve contains 
a Scientific Gold Pen. 

Stimpson's Scientific Gold Pen, 
Stlmpson's Ink-Retaining Holder. 

A simple apparatus, which does not get out of order, withholds at a single dip as 
much ink as the pen would otherwise realize from a dozen trips to the inkstand, which 
it supplies with moderate and easy flow. 



THE N'ATiONAL SERIES OF STANDARD MISCELLANY. 

LIBRARY AND MISCELLANEOUS 
PUBLICATIONS. 



TEACHERS' WORKING LIBRARY. 
Object Lessons. Welch. 

This is .1 c()iiii>lfte pxpusition of the popular modern system of "object-teaching,'' 
for teachers of jirimarj' (lasses. 

Theory and Practice of Teaching. Page. 

This volume has, without doubt, been read by two hundred thousand teachers, and 
its iiopularity remains undinnnished, large editions being exhausted yearly. It waa 
the pioneer, as it is now the patriarch, of |)rofessional works fur teachers. 

The Graded School. Wells. 

The ])roper way to organize graded schools is here illustrated. The author has availed 
himself of the best elements of the several systems prevalent in Boston, New York, 
Philadelj>hia, Cincinnati, St. Louis, and other cities. 

The Normal. Holbrook. 

Carries a working school on its visit to teachers, showing the most ajiproved methods 
of teaching all the common branches, including the technicalities, explanations, demon- 
strations, and delinitions introductory and ",)eculiar to each branch. 

School Management. Holbrook. 

Treating of the teacher's qualiticatious ; how to overcome difficulties in self and 
others; organization ; discipline; methods of inciting diligence aud order; strategy 
in management ; object-teaching. 

The Teachers' Institute. Fowle. 

This is a volume of suggestions inspired by the author's experience at institutes, in 
the instruction of young teachers. A thousand i)oints of interest to this class are most 
satisfactorily dealt with. 

Schools and Schoolmasters. Dickens. 

Appropriate selections from the writings of the great novelist. 

The Metric System. Davies. 

Considered with reference to its general introduction, and embracing the views of 
John Quincy Adams and Sir John Ilerschel. 

The Student ; The Educator. Phelps. 2 vols. 
The Discipline of Life. Phelps. 

The authnress fif these works is one of the uio.st distinguished writers on education, 
and they cannot fail to ])rove a valuable addition to the School and Teachers' Libraries, 
being in a high degree both interesting and instructive. 

Law of Public Schools. Burke. 

I3y Finley Utirke, CounscUur-at-Law. A new volume in "Barnes's Teachers' Library 
Series." 12mo, cloth. 



"Mr. Burke has given us the latest 
expositions of the law on this highly im- 
portant subject. I shall cordially com- 
mend his treatise." — Theodore Dwigut, 
LL.D. 

B'rum (he Hon. JosFru M. Bkck, Judge of 
Supreme Court, Intra. 

" I have examined with considerable 
tare the mauiuicript of ' A Treatise on the 



Law of Public Schools.* by Finley Burke, 
Esq., of Council Bluffs, In my opinion, 
the work will be of great value to school 
teachers and school officers, and to law- 
yers. The subjects treated of are thought- 
fully cousiilered and thoroughly examined, 
and correctly and systematically arranged 
The style is perspicuous. The legal doc- 
trines of the work, so lar as I ha\ e been 



66 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD MISCELLANY. 



MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS — Continued. 



able to consider them, are sound. I have 
examined quite a number of the authori- 
ties cited ; they sustain the rules an- 
nounced in the text. Mr. Burke is an able 
and industrious jnember of the bar of the 
Supreme Court of this State, and has a 
high standing in. the profession of the 
law. " 

" I fully concur in the opinion of Judge 
Beck, above expressed." — John F. Dil- 
lon. iV.-w York, May, 1880. 

Sioux City, Iowa, May, 1880. 
I have examined the manuscript of 
Finley Burke, Esq., andlind a full citation 
of all the cases and decisions pertaining to 
the school law, occurring in the courts of 
the United Sta'es. This volume contains 

Teachers' Handbook. Phelps. 

By William F. Phelps, Principal of Minnesota State Normal School. Embracing the 
objects, history, organization, and management of teachei's' institutes, followed by 
methods of teaching, in detail, for all the fundamental brandies. Every young teacher, 
every practical teacher, every experienced teacher even, needs this book. 

This is the key-note of the present excel- 



valuable and important information con- 
cerning school law, which has never before 
been accessible to either teacher or school 
officer. A. Armstrong, 

Supt. Schools, Sioux City, Iowa. 

Des Moines, May 15, 1880. 
The examination of "A Treatise on the 
Law of Public Schools," prepared by Fin- 
ley Burke, Esq. , of Council Blufl's, has 
given me much pleasure. So far as I 
know, there is no work of similar charac- 
ter now in existence. I think such a work 
will be exceedingly useful to lawyers, 
school officers, and teachers, and I Itupe 
that it may find its way into their hands. 

G. W. VON "COELLN, 

Su]>t. Public Inst, for Iowa. 



lent volume. In view of the supreme 
importance of the teacher's calling, Mr. 
Phelps has presented an elaborate system 
of instruction in the elements of learning, 
with a complete detail of methods and 
processes, illusti-ated with an abundance 
of practical examples and enforced by 
judicious councils." 



From the New York Tribune. 

" The discipline of the school should 
prepare the child for the discipline of life. 
The country schoolmaster, accordingly, 
holds a position of vital interest to the 
destiny of the republic, and should neg- 
lect no means for the wise and efficient 
discharge of his significant functions. 

Topical Course of Study. Stone. 

Tliis volume is a compilation from the courses of study of our most successful public 
schools, and the best thought of leading educators. The pupil is enabled to make full 
use of any and all text-books bearing on the given topics, and is incited to use all other 
information within his reach. 

American Education. Mansfield. 

A treatise on the principles and elements of education, as practised in this country, 
Vith ideas towards distinctive republican and Christian education. 

American Institutions. De Tocqueville. 

A valuable index to the genius of our Government. 

Universal Education. Mayhew. 

The subject is approached with the clear, keen perception of one who has observed 
its necessity, and realized its feasibility and expediency alike. The redeeming and 
elevating power of improved common schools constitutes the inspiration of the volume. 

Oral Training Lessons. Barnard. 

The object of this very useful work is to furnish material for instructors to impart 
orally to their classes, in branches not usually taught in common schools, embracing a?" 
departments of natural science and much general knowledge. 

Lectures on Natural History. Chadbourne. 

Affording many themes for oral instruction in this interesting sci«nce, especiallj ia 
scliot^ where it is not piursued as a class exercise. 



67 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD MISCELLANY. 

MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS — Ccwi/uiucc/. 

Outlines of Mathematical Science. Davies. 

A manual suggesting tlie best methods of in-esenting matlieniatical instruction on the 
part of tlie teaelier, witli that cominehensive view of the whole which is necessary to 
the intelligent treatment of a part, in science. 

Nature and Utility of Mathematics. Davies. 

An elaborate and lucid exposition of the ))rinciples which lie at the foundation of 
pure mathematics, with a liighly ingenious appiicatioji ot their results to the develop- 
ment of tlie essential idea of the ditt'erent branches of the science. 

Mathematical Dictionary. Davies and Peck. 

This cycloi)ivdia of matlwmatical science defines, witli completeness, i)recision, and 
accuracy, every technical t( nn ; tJius constituting a popular treatise on each brunch, 
and a general view of the whole subject. 

The Popular Educator. Barnes. 

In seven volumes, containing interesting and prolitable educational miscellany. 

Liberal Education of Women. Orton. 

Treats of " the demand and the method ; " being a comi)ilation of the bc-t and most 
advanced thought on this subject, by the leading writers and educators in England and 
America. Edited by a professor in Vassar College. 

Education Abroad. Northrop. 

A thorougii discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of sending American 
children to Europe to be educated ; also, ]iapers on legal i)revention of illiteracy, study, 
an<l health, labor as an educator, and other kindred subjects. 

The Teacher and the Parent. Northend. 

A treatise ui)on common-school education, designed to lead teachers to view their 
calling in its true light, and to stimulate them to fidelity. 

The Teachers' Assistant. Northend. 

A natural continuation of the author's jtrevious work, more directly calculated for 
daily use in the administration of school discipline and instruction. 

School Government. Jewell. 

Full of advanced ideas on the subject wliich its title indicates. The criticisms upon 
current theories of punishment and schemes of administration have excited general 
attention and comment. 

Grammatical Diagrams. Jewell. 

The diagram system of teaching grammar c.xjil.iiiicd, defended, and improved. The 
curious in literature, the searcher for truth, those interested in new inventions, as well 
as the disciples of Professor Clark, who would see their favorite theory fairly treated, 
all want this book. There are many who would like to be made familiar with this 
system before risking its use in a class. The opportunity is here afforded. 

The Complete Examiner. Stone. 

Consi>ts of a series of riuestlons on every English branch of school and academic 
instruction, with reference to a given page or article of leading te.xt-books where the 
answer may be found in full. Prpi)ared to aid teachers in securing certificates, pujiils 
in preparing for i)romotiou, and teachers in selecting review questions. 

How Not to Teach. Griffin. 

This book hicels a want universally felt among young teachers who have their cxi)e- 
Tience in teaching to learn, ll nndeitakes to i)oint out the many natuial misUikes into 
which teachers, unconsciously or otherwise, fall, and warns the reader against dangers 
that beset the path of every conscientious teacher. It tells the reader, also, the jiroper 
and arcejitable way to teach, illustrating the author's ideas by some practice-lessoua 
in arithmetic (^fter GrubeJ. QQ 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD MISCELLANY, 

MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS — Continued. 

School Amusements. Root. 

To assist teachers in making the school interesting, with hints upon the manage- 
ment of the school-room. Rules for military and gymnastic exercises are included.. 
Illustrated by diagrams. 

Institute Lectures. Bates. 

These lectures, originally delivered before institutes, are based upon various topics in 
tlie departments of mental and moral culture. The volume is calculated to preparq 
the will, awaken the inquiry, and stimulate the thought of the zealous teacher. 

Method of Teachers' Institutes. Bates. 

Sets forth the best method of conducting institutes, with a detailed account of the 
object, organization, plan of instruction, and true theory of education on which such 
instruction should be based. 

History and Progress of Education. 

The systems of education prevailing in all nations and ages, the gradual advance to 
the present time, aud the bearing of the past upon the present, in this regard, are 
worthy of the careful investigation of all concerned in education. 

Higher Education. Atlas Series. 

A collection of valuable essays. Contents. International Communication by Lan- 
guage, by Philip Gilbert Hamerton ; Reform in Higher Education ; Upper Schools, by 
President James McCosh ; Study of Greek and Latin Classics, by Prof Charles 
Elliott ; The University System in Italy, by Prof. Angelo de Gubernatis, of the 
University of Florence ; Universal Education, by Ray Palmer ; Industrial Art Educa- 
tion, by Eatou S. Drone. 



LIBRARY OF LITERATURE. 

Milton's Paradise Lost. (Boyd's Illustrated Edition.) 
Young's Night Thoughts. do. 

Cowper's Task, Table Talk, &c. do. 
Thomson's Seasons. do. 

Pollok's Course of Time. do. 

These works, models of the best and purest literature, are beautifully illustrated, and 
notes explain all doubtful meanings. 

Lord Bacon's Essays. (Boyd's Edition.) 

Another grand English classic, affording the highest example of purity in language 
and style. 

The Iliad of Homer. (Translated by Pope.) 

Those who are unable to read this greatest of ancient writers in the original should 
not fail to avail themselves of this standard metrical version. 

Pope's Essay on Man. 

This is a model of pure classical English, which should be read, also, by every teacher 
and scholar for the sound thought it cx)ntains. 

Improvement of the Mind. Isaac Watts. 

No mental philosophy was ever written which is so comprehensive and practically 
useful to the unlearned as well as learned reader as this well-known book of Watts. 

Milton's Political Works. Cleveland. 

This is tlie very best edition of the great poet. It includes a life of the author, 
notes, dissertations on each poem, a faultless text, and is the only edition of Miltoa 
with a complete verbal index. 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD MISCELLANY, 

MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS — Continued. 

Compendium of English Literature. Cleveland. 
English Literature of XlXth Century. Cleveland. 
Compendium of American Literature. Cleveland. 

Nearly one liiimlred and liliy tlioiisainl volumes of I'lolessor Cleveland's inimitable 
conii>endiums have been sold. I'aUen togetiier they present a complete view of litera- 
ture. To tlie man who can ailbrd but a few l)ooks lhe.^e will sujijily the place of an 
extensive library. From commendations of tlie \ ery highest authorities the following 
extracts will give some idea of the enthusiasm with which the works are regai«led by 
scholars : — 

" With the Bible and your volumes one might leave libraries without very luiinful 
regret." " The work cannot be found from which in the same limits .so much interesting 
and valuable information may be obtained." "dood taste, fine scholarshij*, familiar 
acquaintiince with literature, unwearied industry, tact acquired by jiracticc, an interest 
in the culture of the young, and regard for truth, purily, philanthroiiy, and religion 
are united in Mr. Cleveland." "A judgment clear and i.njiartial, a taste at once deli- 
cate and severe." "The biogi-aphies are just and discriminating." "An adndnible 
bird's-eye view." "Acquaints the reader with the characteristic method, tone, and 
quality of each writer." "Succinct, carefully written, aud wouderfully comprebeusive 
in detail," &c., &c. 



THE TEACHER'S READING CIRCLE. 

"No movement of modern times, raiud and startling as have been the changes in 
school methods, has ever made such simple and economical provisions for self-improve- 
ment among teachers, or jiromises such wide usefulness." - Tltc I'Ahicjtioiud Weekly. 

" A better indication of jirogress even than the improvement and incrca.sing number 
of educational journals, is the formation of Teachers' Reading Cindcs. More may be 
conlidently exjiected from these associations than from any oUier educational movement 
ever started in this country." — The Fratticul Teacher. 

Among the leading publications selected for the Teachers" Reading Circles are the 
following : — 

Barnes's Brief General History of the World. 

Fn>„i H. M. Ski.v.m:k. »,■■(/ Iniliiiini Ucudin'i ('irric lUni ni : " It would not be assert- 
ing too much to say that if an autiior thorougidy competent had luidertaken the ju-ep- 
aration of a book expressly for the Reading Cinde, — a book intended to inii)art general 
information and to eneourage a taste for reading, — a work better adapted to the Read- 
ing Cirelc needs than Barnes's General History would hardly have been possible." 

Page's Theory and Practice of Teaching. (New Ed.) 

Tins \oliiMie has without doubt lireii reail by several hundred thousand teachers, 
and its popularity remains undiminished — large editions being exhausted yearly. It 
was the pioneer, as it is now the j)atriarch, of ]>rofessional works for teachers. 

Watts's Improvement of the Mind. (New iMlition.) 

The iililest prodiKijon of one of tin' most eiuinent writers of the lOnglish language. 
The amount of ]iraitieal wisdom containeil within its two hundred ]iagcs has challenged 
the admiration of the wisest of the two hendsiiheres for more than a century. This 
book should be carefully read and digested by every teacher and advanced stU(ient. 

Hygiene for Young People. 
Steele's Hygienic Physiology. 

These books are of unsurpas.scd excellence, 'jhe text of each is broU!,dit fully up to 
the level of the New I'liysiological views, and the subjects are treated with special refer- 
ence "to the cMccts of alcoholic drinks, stimulants, and narcotics upon the human 
Bystcm." They are essential to every well-regulated teacher's library. 

70 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD MISCELLANY, 

MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS — Continued, 

LIBRARY OF HISTORY. 
Ancient and Mediaeval Republics. Mann. 

A review of their institutions, and of the causes of their decline and fall. By 
Henry Mann. 8vo. 584 pages, cloth. 

Outlines of General History. Oilman. 

The number of facts which the author has compressed into these outline sketches is 
really surprising ; the chapters on the Middle Ages and feudalism alford striking ex- 
amples of his i)ower of succinct but comprehensive statement. In his choice of 
representative pei'iods and events in the histories of nations he shows very sound judg- 
ment, and his characterization of conspicuous historical figures is accurate and 
impartial. 

Great Events of History. Collier. 

This celebrated work, edited for American readers by Trof 0. R. Willis, gives, in a 
series of pictures, a pleasantly readable and easily remembered view of the Christian 
era. Each chapter is headed by its central jioint of interest to afford association for the 
mind. Delineations of life and manners at different periods are interwoven. A geo- 
graphical appendix of great value is added. 

History of England. Lancaster. 

An arrangement of the essential facts of English history in the briefest manner 
consistent with clearness. With a fine ma}). 

A Critical History of the Civil War. Mahan. 

Bv Asa Mahan, LL.D., author of "Intellectual Philosophy," " Elements of Logic," 
&c.' First president of Oberlin College, Ohio. With an introductory letter by Lieut- 
Gen. M. W. Smith of the Bi-itish army. 8vo. 450 pages. Cloth. 

The plan of this work is to i)resent, not the causes and details of facts which led to 
the war, but the conduct and management of the war on the part of those concerned. 
It is a matter of present and future importance to Americans to know not only how the 
war was conducted, but also how it might have been more successfully carried on 
The author has made the science of war a subject of careful and protracted study, and 
his views are pronounced and scientific. He takes strong ground, writes with vigor, 
and the interest of the reader is fully sustained from the beginning to the close of the 
book. His conclusions have already passed into history, and this woi-k wdl be regarded 
as one of the most important contributions to the literature of the subject. 

Europe under Napoleon First. Alison. 

A history of Europe from 17S0 to 1815. By Archibald Alison. Abridged by Edward 
S. Gould. 1 vol. 8vo, with appendix, questions, and maps. 550 pages 



It seems to me an excellent abridg- 
ment. . . . Written in clear and chaste 
style, presenting the narrative in exact 
form for the general reader. . . . "—Judge 
Joseph Story. 



"One of the best abridgments lever 
saw. The material facts are all retained, 
and Mr. Gould has displayed great indus- 
try and skill in preserving the substance 
of so }jreat a history." — Chancellor 
James Kent. 

History of Rome. Ricord. 

An entertaining narrative for the young. Illustrated. Embracing successively, The 
Kings, The Republic, The Empire. 

History of the Ancient Hebrews. Mills. 

The record of "God's people" from the call of Abraham to the destruction of Jeru- 
salem ; gathered from sources sacred and profane. 

The Mexican War. Mansfield. 

A history of its origin, and a detailed account of its victories ; with official despatches, 
the treaty of peace, and valuable tables. Illustrated. 

72 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD MISCELLANY, 

MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS — Co/Kinwerf. 

Early History of Michigan. Sheldon. 

A wiirk (if valiif .iiid tlecii i"tt'iTst to tlif iieoi)le of the West. Compiled under the 
suiiervisioii of Hon. Lewis Cass. I'ortraits. 

History of Texas. Baker. 

A jMtliy ami interesting resniiie. Copiously ilhistratod. The State constitution and 
estracts Ironi the sjieeclie.-^ and \viitiii;.^s of eminent Texans are apjieuded. 

Magazine of American History. 

8 volumes. Illustrated. A collection of valuable data relating to American 
History. 

Points of History. 

For schools and colleges. By John Lord, LL.D. , author of "Old Roman World," 
" Modern History," &c. 

Barnes's Popular History of the United States. 1 vol. 

This suiicrhly ilhi.stiated work is by the author of "Barnes's Brief Histories " (for 
schof)ls). The leading idea is to make American \\'\story popular for the masses, and 
esiiecially with the young. Tiie style is therefore life-like and vivid, carrying the 
reader along by the sweep of the st<n\v as in a novel, so that when he begins an account 
of an important event he cannot very well lay down the book until he linisiies. It is 
complete from the earliest times to date. 

" Barnes's i'opnlar History of the United States " was undertaken at the close of the 
first hnmlred years of American Independence. The a ithor piMposcd to give to the 
whole people of the United Stjvtes and the worM a tl»orouglily impartial history of 
Ameri(;a, from the mound-builders to the present time. As such it was neiessary to 
steer free from whatever in reient history would arouse sectional animosity or party 
bitterness. He determined to meet all questions of burning mouKMit in tlie judicial 
rather than controversial spirit, and while giving to every event its due importance, he 
would seek to avoid controversy by the gentle word '"that tnrneth away wrath." The 
work is now finishefl down to President Arthur's administration. In it the truth of 
Ameriran history is impartially given in true historic form, without fear or favor. It is 
a work that all sections of the country can read and enjoy. Although the author is a 
Northern man and soldier, his work is popular and widely used as a text-book East, 
West, North, and S nth. An Alabama teaciier lately wrote as lollows : '' We are using 
your history and like it, though it docs n't favor u.i rebels." And so it is liked throughout 
the country, because it does n't favor any side at the expense of truth and justice. 
Instead of iieing spread out in many volumes, more or less ilidactic, statistical, or dry. 
the book is complete in one royal 8vo volume of 850 pages, with 14 full-page steel 
engravings and 320 text illustrations on wood, engraved by eminent artists. It is fully 
up to the times and includes an account of President Garfield's brief administration 
and ti'agic death, and General Grant's funeral. 

Mrs. Martha J. Lamb's History of New York City. 
2 vols., cloth. 

This is a comjilete survey of the history o" New York frcmi early settlement to the 
present time. It opens with a brief outline of the condition of the Old World prior to 
the settlement of the New, and jiroeeeds to give a careful analysis o. the two great 
Dutch Commercial Corporations to which New York owes its origin. It sketches the 
rise and growth of the little colony on Manhattan Islan<l ; describes the Indian wars 
with which it was attlicted ; gives color and life U) its Dutch riders ; i)aints its subju- 
gation by the English, its after vicissitudes, the Revolution of 1(J8'.> ; in short, it le.ids 
the reader through one continuous chain of events down to the American Revolution. 
Then, gathering up the threads, the author gives an artistic and comprehensive account 
of the progress of the city, in extent, education, culture, literature, art, and i)o|itical 
and commercial importance during the last century. Prominent i)ersonsare iiitroduce<l 
in all the different jieriods, with choice bits of family history, and glimi>.ses of social 
life. The work contains maps of the city in the ditlerent decades, and severxU rare 

73 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD MISCELLANY, 

MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS— Confinwed. 

portraits from original paintings, which have never before been engraved. The illus- 
trations, about 320 in number, are ail of an interesting and highly artistic character. 

" Tliere is warintli and color and life in 
every passage." — New York Sun. 

" riie worlc has been done faithfully 
and picturesquely." — T/ie Nation. 

Carrington's Battles of the Revolution. 

A careful descrii>tion and analysis of every engagement of the War for Independence, 
witli topographical cliarts jirepared from personal surveys by the author, a veteran 
otficer of the United States army, and Professor ot Military Science in Wabash College. 

Baker's Texas Scrap-Book. 

Conijirising the history, biogniphy, liteiatuie, and miscellany of Texas and its people. 
A valualile collection of material, anecdotical -ind statistical, which is not to be found 
ill any other form. The worli is handsomely illustrated. 



"AVidely welcomed both for its abun- 
dant stores of information and the attrac- 
tions of the narrative." — New York 
Tribune. 



DICTIONARIES AND ENCYCLOP/EDIAS. 
Home Cyclopaedia of Literature and Fine Arts. 

Index to terms employed in belles-lettres, philosophy, theology, law, mythology, 
painting, music, sculi)ture, architecture, and all kindreil arts. liy Geo. Ripley and 
C'has. A. Dana. 

The Rhyming Dictionary. Walker. 

A serviceable manual to composers, being a complete index of allowable rhj'mes. 

Dictionary of Synonyms ; or, The Topical Lexicon. 
Williams. 

Terms of the Englisli language rlnsdfieil hy nthjecfs and arranged according to their 
affinities of meaning, with etyn.ologies, definitions, and illustrations. A very enter- 
taining and instructive work. 

Ha\vaiian Dictionary. 

Mathematical Dictionary. Davies and Peck. 

A thorough compendium of tlie science, with illustrations and delinitions. 

Kwong's Dictionary. 

A dictionary of Englisli phrases. With illustrative sentences. With collections of 
English and Cliincse jnoverbs, translations of Latin and French i)hrases, historical 
sketch of the Chinese Empire, a <;hronoh)gical list of the Chinese dynasties, brief 
biographical sketches of Confucius and of Jesus, and complete index. By Kwong Ki 
Chin, late member of the Chinese Educational Mission in ihe United States, and for- 
merly principal teacher of English in the Government School at Shanghai, China. 9U0 
jtages, Svo, cloth. 



From the Hartford Courunt. 

" Tlie volume shows great industry and 
ajiprehension of our language, and is one 
of the most curious and interesting of 
linguistic works." 



From the New York Nation. 

" It will amaze the sand-lot gentry to be 
informefl that this remarkable work will 
supplement our English dictionaries eveu 
for native Americans.'' 



BARNES'S LIBRARY OF BIOGRAPHY. 
The Life of President Garfield, 

From Birth to Presidency, by Major J. M. Bundy, editor New Yor-s " Evening Mail- 
Express." From Mentor to Elberou, by Col. A. F. Rockwell. 0<-ation and Eulogj', by 
Hon. James G. Blaine. 
ThLs life of our martyred President, by Major Bundy, Mr. Blaiue, and Colonel Rockwell 

74 



THE tJATIONAl SERIES OF STANDARD MISCELLANY. 

MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS — CoiUi/iwcti. 

who was with the President before aiul after the assassinat'on, is the most correct and 
authentic. .Major Bandy visited General 'Jartield at .^[ent(lr, by invitation, and received 
all the facts relating to liis life to the day of ids nondnation, Ironi tin; General's lips. 
This history of his life was completed by Colonel A. F. Rockwell and Hon. Jan:es G. 
Blaine. 

The Autobiography of Rev. Chas. G. Finney, 

Tlie revivalist prcaclicr and tirst president of (Jberlin Colle:,'e. Willi steel portrait. 
Edited by Pres. J. II. Fairchild, of Oberlin. Dr. Finney was the greatest and most 
successful evangelist of modern times. His labiM's extended not oidy tlimnghunt a 
large territory in the United States, but in Great Britain and Ireland, and he i>roduced 
a most powerful imi)ression. This memoir describes the scenes he passed through in 
the mo.st vivid language, and covers the entire period of his life, from the time of his 
conversion to the close of his career. 

Memoirs of P. P. Bliss. 

With steel portrait of Mr. and .Mrs. Bliss and two children. By Major D. W. Whittle. 
Wftii a comjilete collection of Mr. Bii-ss's tunes and hymns, many of which are here 

fiublishel for the tii-st time. Containing also contributions by Mr. Moody, Mr. Sankey, 
>r. Gcindwin, and others. 

The Life and Speeches of Henry Clay. 

New edition. Cojnplete in one volume. Comi)iled and edited by Daniel Mallory. 
1,3*2.5 pages, 8vo, cloth, steel plates, portraits, and other illu.strations. 

This is the best life of Henry Clay. It contains a full sketch of his life and all his 
speeches, — his most important speeches in full and his less imjiortant ones in ]>art. It 
also contains an epitome of tlie Compromise Measures, the ()bituary Addresses and 
Eulogies by Senators Underwood, Cass, Hunter, Hall, Clemens, Conjier, Jones, of Iowa, 
and Brooke ; ami llepresentatives Breckenridge, Ewing, Caskie, Chandler, of Pennsyl- 
vania, Bayley, Venable. Haven, J5rooks, of New York, Faulkner, of Virginia, Parker, 
Gentry, Bowie, and Walsh. Also the funeral sermon, by the Rev. C. M. Butler, Cliap- 
lain of tlic Senate, and various important corrcspomlciice not elsewhere published. 

Henry Clay's Last Years. Colton. 
Garibaldi's Autobiography. 

From his birth to liis retirement at Caprera ; including the most eventful period of 
his life. Translated from manuscript by Theodore Uwight, autlior of "A Tour iu 
Italy," and "Tlie Roman Republic." Embellished with portrait engraved on steel. 

The Life and Services of Lieut.-Gen. Winfield Scott, 

Including his bridiant achievements in the War of 1S12 and in the Me.vit'an War, and 
tile i)art jd-iyed by him at the opening of the Civil War of 1SG2. By Edward D. Mans- 
field, I.I.I), rjnio. (doth, illustrated. 5.^-0 pages. 

Lives of the Signers. Dwight. 

The memory of the noble men who dec lared our country free, at the peril of their own 
"lives, fortunes, and sacred honor," should be embalmed in every American's heart. 

Life of Sir Joshua Reynolds. Cunningham. 

.V candiil. truthful, and ap]U'eciative iiifinoir of the great i>aintcr, with a compilation 
of Ills di.scourses. The volume is a text-bnuk for artists, as well as those who would 
acquire the rudiments of art. With a portrait. 

Biography of Ezra Cornell, 

Founder of Cornell University. A filial tribute. By liis son, Hon. A. B. Cornell, 
late Governor of the State of New York. 

From the Nation. I ■''"^^ there was nothing to be apologized 

lor or glos.sed over." 

From the Xew York Times. 



" Mr. A. B. Cornell, as the biographer 
of his father, has had oi)iiortunities sm h 
as are given to few sons who undertake 
Bimiiar tasks. Tlie mat(!rial of ;i singu- 
larly noble, useful life was before him. 



" Ezra Cornell, the man, was a jtcrson 
more to l»e esteemed and remembered than 
Ezra Curnell, the millionaire." 



75 



WE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD MISCELLANY, 



MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS — Continued. 

Prison Life. 

Interesting Biographies of celebrated prisoners and martyrs, designed especially for 
the instruction and cultivation of youth. 

Men of Mark. 

Bryant, Longfellow. Poe, Cliarlcs Tennyson Turner, Macaulay, Freeman, Curtius, 
George Ticknor, Sumner, John Stuart Mill. By Edwin P. Whipple, Edward A. Free- 
man, and others 275 pa;,e.s, 8vo. pajter covers. 

Autobiography of Havilah Mowry, Jr. 

A city missionary sixty years hi the harness. 



BARNES'S LIBRARY OF TRAVEL. 
Silliman's Gallop through America ; 

Or, Sketches of American Scenes and Military Adventure. By Augustus E. Silliman. 
It is a most agreeable volume, and we commend it to the lovers of the " sparkling " 
style of literature. It carries the reader through and imst many of the spots, North 
and South, made memorable by events of the Revolution and the War of 1812. 

Texas : the Coming Empire. McDaniel and Taylor. 

Narrative of a two-thousand-mile trii) on horseback through the Lone Star State; 
with lively descriptions of iieojile, scenery, and resources. 

Lrife in the Sandwich Islands. Cheever. 

The " heart of the Pacific, as it was and is," shows most vividly the contrast between 
the depth of degradation and barbarism and the light and liberty of civilization, so 
rapidly realized in these islands under the humanizing influence of the Christian re- 
ligion. lUustraterl. 

The Republic of Liberia. Stockwell. 

Tliis volume treats of the geograi)hy, climate, soil, and i>roductions of this interesting 
country on the coast of Africa, with a history of its early settlement. Our colored 
citizens especially, irom whom the founders of the new State went forth, should read 
Mr. Stockwell's account of it. 

Discoveries in Nineveh and Babylon. 

With 20 illustrations and a complete index. By Austen H. Layard, M. P. Abridged 
edition. 550 pages, 12mo, cloth. 

BARNES'S BUSINESS COURSE. 
Ward's Letter-Writing and Business Forms. 

Letter-writing, Bills, Receipts, Accounts, Checks, Notes, and all Commercial forms 
are given for practice. 

Powers's Practical Book-keeping. 

This work is designed to impart instruction u])on the science of accounts, as applied 
to mercantile business. 

Folsom's Logical Book-keeping. 

This treatise emln-aces interesting and important discoveries which elucidate the 

thirteen results of business 

Smith and Martin's Book-keeping. 

By a practical teacher and a practical book-keejier. 

Cocker's Hand-book of Punctuation. 

With instructions foi' capitalization, letter- writing, and proof-reading, 

Eames's Light-Line Short-Hand. 

This book presents a practical phonetic system, without shading. 

76 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD MISCELLANY. 

MISCELLANEOUS TUBLICATIONS - Continued. 

Eighteen Months on a Greenland Whaler. 

IJy .loseiih P. FaulUiier, an "ex-assistant wliale-catclier in an American schooner," and 
author of other recollfctions of the sea. 318 pages, iGnio, cloth. 

The Polar Regions ; 

Or. Tlie First Stanii Atu r Sir.Ioiin Franklin's Fxiicditinn. By Lient. Sherard Osborn, 
commanding H. M. S. I'ioMcer (the lirst steam vessel that ever penetrated the Northern 
se;i). 212 pages, 12nio, cloth. 

St. Petersburg. Jermann. 

Americans are less t'aiiiiliar with tlie liistuiy and social customs of the Russian peo- 
ple than tiiose of any other modern civilized nation. Opportunities such as this book 
artbrds are not. theiefore, to be neglected. 

Thirteen Months in the Confederate Army. 

The author, a Northern man conscrijited into the Confederate service, ami rising from 
the ranks by .soldierly conduct to positions of resjionsiliility, had remarkalde oppor- 
tunities tor tiie acquisition of facts resjiec-ting the conduct of the Southern armies, and 
the policy ami deeds of their leaders. He particijated in many engagements, and his 
book is one of tlie most exciting narratives of adventure ever published. Mr. Steven- 
son takes no ground as a partisan, but views the whole subject as with the eye of a 
neutral, only interested in subserving the ends of history by the contribution of 
impartial facts. lUustrateil. 

The Isthmus of Tehauntepec. Anderson. 

8vo, cloth. A history of the Isliimus from earliest times to the present, V'i'.h an 
acc'iiiiit of i^ailroud enterprises and valuable maps and charts. 



BARNES'S RELIGIOUS LIBRARY. 
Ra};- Palmer's Poetical Works. 

An ex(pusite edition of the complete hymns and other poeticai writings of the 
most eminent of American sacred poets, author of " My Faitii Looks up to Thee." 

Formation of Religious Opinions. Palmer. 

Hints tor the V)enetit of young jieojilc who liave found themselves disturbed by inward 
questionings or doubts <'onceriiiiig the Cliiistian faitli. 

Nine Lectures on Preaching. Dale. 

By Rev. R. \V. Dale, of Englaml. Delivered at Yale College. Contents : Perils of Young 
Preachers ; The Intellect in Relation to Preaching : Reading ; Prei>aration of Sermcuis : 
Extemporaneous Preaching; Evangelistic Preaching; Pastoral Preaching; Conduct 
of Public Worship, 

Dale on the Atonement. 

The theory and fact of Christ's atonement iirofcmndly considered. 

The Service of Song. Stacy. 

A treatise on singing, in public and private devotion. Its history, olTice, and inipor- 
tajiee considered. 

" Remember Me." Palmer. 

i'rcp;n-ati(in for t!ie llnly Communion. 

Bible Lands Illustrated. 

A jiictorial hand-book of the anti(piities and modern life of all the sacred countries. 
By Henry C. Fish, I). D. With six hundred engravings and maj.s, one thousand eluci* 
lifted Scripture texts, and two thousand indexed subjects. 8vo, cloth, 900 pages. 

77 



iHt NATIO:\IAL SERIES OF STANDARD MISCELLANY. 



MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS — ConimuecZ. 

Lyman Abbott's Commentary on the Gospels. 

Handy edition, 3 vols., Svo, 
cloth, illustrated. Household 
edition, on large pajjer, in 2 
vols. 

This is altogether, and all 
points considered, the best 
commentary for Christian 
workers. It is handy, prac 
tical, finely illustrated and 
printed, clear, concise, plain, 
spiritual, and scholarly. It 
is cordially and earnestly 
indorsed by the most emi 
nent divines and laymen of 
all denominations, and also 
by the whole religious press. 

" Ellicott and Alvord are 
too costl}'^ and too learned 
Barnes, Ja<;obus, and Owen 
are too flat and thin ; Lange 
is a huge wilderness ; Abbott 
is simjile, attractive, correct, 
and judicious in the use 
of learning." — Chancellor 
Howard Crosby, LL D. 

" We are strongly con 
vinced that this is one of the 
ablest commentaries which 
this century of commenta- 
ries has produced." — Rev 
J. H. Vincent, D D. 




Lastefv Cny Wall 



lIxuui AbboLl s CouimniLdij J 



Lady "Willoughby. 

Tlie di;iry of a \vi e nnl mother. An liistorical romance of the seventeenth century. 
At once beautiful and patiietic, entertaining ami instructive. 

Favorite Hymns Restored. Gage. 

Most ot tiie standard hymns liave undergone modification or abridgment by compilers, 
but this volume contains tliem exactly as written by the authors. 

Poets' Gift of Consolation. 

A beautiful selection of poems referring to the death of children. 

Sixty Years in the Harvest Field. Mowry. 



Dr. Thco L Cuyler says: 
•' For 'uore than twenty years I have 
kn-iwn Mr. Mowry well. This volume is 
the plain, truthful narrative of a long life- 



78 



Avork in guiding souls to the Saviour. It 
will be helpful to all who labor at the 
best trade in the world, — the trade of 
making Christians." 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD ntSCELLANY. 



MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS — ConiinueiZ. 

Froude's Theological Unrest. (Atlas Series.) 
The History of the English Bible, 

Extending troni tin; earliest tSaxnn translatioMs ti) the (iresent Anglo-American Revision, 
With sjieeial refeienee to the Protestant religion and the English language. By Black- 
ford Condit. With steel portrait ot Wyelitle. 4(<0 pages, l-inio, eloth. 

This is a conseeutive history of all the English versions ot the cjeriptures and their 
translators, including also the history of Protestantism in England and the growt.U and 
changes of the English language. 



BARNES'S YOUTH'S LIBRARY. 
Earnest Words on True Success in Life. 

Addre.ssed to young men and women. By Kay Palmer. "JliO I'ages, 12mo, cIolu. 

Ida Norman. 

Two vols, in one. A novel. With illustrations. By Mrs. Lincoln Phelps. 432 pages, 
12mo, cloth. 

The Educator ; or, Hours with my Pupils. 

A series of i>ractieal hints to young ladies on questions of beiiavior and education. 
By Mrs. Lincoln Phelps. 3C4 pages, 12mo, cloth. 

The Student ; or, the Fireside Friend. 

A series of lectuies to young ladies, in which the author gives a course of practical 
instruction for home study, inclu<ling jihysical, intellectual, social, domestic, and relig- 
ious training. Intende<l to awaken in the minds of the young an idea of the impor- 
tance and value of education, and to provide the means of sell-iusiruetiou. With an 
index. 380 pagej, l2mo, cloth. 

Hygiene for Young People. 

Strongly recommended for its scientilic presentation of t'.ie principles of temperance. 

Life in the Sandwich Islands. 

By Rev. llt-nry T. L'hecvcr. '6M l>ages, 12mo, cloth. 

Lives of the Signers. 

Carefully prei)ared sketches of the lives and careers of the signers of the document 
declaring the independence of the States of America. By N. Dwight. 374 pages, 12mo, 
cloth. 

Discoveries among the Ruins of Nineveh and 
Babylon. 

With travels in Armenia, Kurdistan, and the Desert. Being the result of the second 
expedition undertaken for the trustees of the British Museum. Au abridgment By 
Austen H. Layard, M.P. 550 pages, l'2mo, cloth. 

The History of the Jews. 

From the flood to their dispersement. From sources sacred and profane. A most 
excellent work in connection with the study of tlie Scriptures. Giving a connected 
account of the histoiy and acts of this chosen people. By Abraham Mills, with colored 
charts, maps, and illustrations. 444 pages, P2mo. 

Johnny Morrow, the Newsboy. 

An aitohiograiihv written l.y tin; hero when sixteen years of age. ICmo, cloth. A 
plain storv of one who represents a class. The writer, although a newsboy and pedler 
of trinkets, is well remembered in New Uaven, Coul , and possesses a power and 
maturity of expression quite remarkable. 

79 



THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD MISCELLANY. 

MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS — Continued. 

Stories of Prison Lfife. 

Cloth, 16mo. Biographies of noted political prisoners, as Picciola, the heroine of 
Siberia ; Silvio Pellico, and Baron Trenck. 

The Son of a Genius. 

A tale. By Mrs. Hofland. Cloth, 16mo. 

St. Chrysostom ; or, the Mouth of Gold. 

By Rev. Edwin Johnson. Cloth, 16uio. An original dramatic poem, in six cantos. 
With explanatory notes. 



VALUABLE SPECIAL BOOKS. 
Opium Habit and Drunkenness. 

The extent, terrible efifects, and radical cure. Read Dr. Hubbard's " Opinmania and 
Dipsomania. " 

"To many victims and their friends, this book will corns like a prophet of God." 

— Christian Cnion. 

Grecian and Roman Mythology. Dwight. 

The presentation in a systematic form of the fables of antiquity affords most enter- 
taining reading, and is valuable to all as an index to the mythological allusions so 
Irequent in literature, as well as to students of the classics who would peruse intelli- 
gently the classical authors. Illustrated. 

General View of the Fine Arts. Huntington. 

The preparation of this work was suggested by the interested inquiries of a group of 
young people concerning the jiroductions and styles of the great masters of art, whose 
names only were familiar. This statement is sutticient index of its character. 

The Poets of Connecticut. Everest. 

With the biographical sketches, this volume forms a complete history of the poetical 
literature of the State. 



BARNES'S CHOICE STANDARD ENGLISH LIBRARY. 
Fifty-Nine Essays. 

By Lord Bacon. With notes, critical and biographical, by Hallam, Macaulay, and 
others. Edited by James R. Boyd. 426 pages, 12mo, cloth. 

Paradise Lost. 

By John Milton. With five full-page engravings, explanatory and critical notes, 
index, &c., &c. Edited by James R. Boyd. 560 pages, 12mo, cloth. 

The Task, Table Talk, and other Poems. 

By William Cowper. With notes, critical and explanatory, complete index, and five 
full-page engravings. Edited by James R. Boyd. 436 pages, 12mo, cloth. 

Night Thoughts. 

By Edward Young. With sketch of life and works of the author, and explanatory 
notes. By James R. Boyd. With steel-plate illustrations. 516 pages, 12mo, cloth. 

The Course of Time. 

By Robert Pollok. Witii two steel-plate engravings : portrait at age of 28, and early 
home ; critical observations of various authors, with notes by Dr. Boyd. 

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